Geographical Information System: GIS - Essay Example

Introduction Geography can be described as a spatial science because geographers are interested in answering questions about places or locations or looking at the distribution of earth phenomena like the climate and how the climate reacts to the Earth’s other systems. This means that geographers must ask four questions when studying geography as a spatial science. Analyzing geography as a spatial science includes a number of valuable techniques that can be used to look at the topological, geometric, or geographic properties of things. When dealing with statistics, spatial analysis refers to a number of formal techniques which are used to study items in the environment using their topographical, geometric, or geographic assets. This is done through a variety of different methods, with the most common in geographical circles being GIS, which stands for Geographical Information System. What this system does is plot points on maps that will measure its geographical makeup, whether that be elevation, distance, or any other differences from the norm. This can also be used to analyse geostatistics and to apply research to them. Currently, this spatial analysis is done by using computers, since there are so many statistics and modern GIS are powerful enough to handle this kind of output. Data Modeling Data modeling is a manner in which a GIS, or Geographical Information System, can be used to analyse the Earth in two and three dimensions, so that altitude can be factored into any geographical information. For example, a GIS can use contour lines to show information on snowfall at different altitudes within a select area of the Earth. This is important because it lessens the chance of errors occurring when analyzing these sorts of areas, as different altitudes will certainly have different atmospheres. This is significant when mapping these areas as well, as the contours that are present will depict the area with different dimensions, with each of these dimensions having different possible levels of snowfall. What this method does is allow for these maps to be analysed in a much different manner, as they give much more information to the geographer than a traditional map. This information from the area is modeled into the map, so analysis is much easier than it would be otherwise. On top of this, these maps can include contour points that show the slope of a hill, where there is shade, and other things that occur when the elevation changes. Geographers can additionally assume where things like watersheds are present by analyzing slopes and snow packs in the area, since the water will settle somewhere if the slope is right on either side of it. Permanent streams can also be discovered through this system, as it is possible to analyse the contours in order to find the best route for surface water to travel which is significant because “at this stage, GIS and geomatics are commonly used, as in the case of flood risk areas, which is one of the major themes. But agencies feel relatively uneasy with using GIS within this procedure itself because they feel that it can mislead interpretations regarding zoning” (Stillwell et al., 1999, P. 175). This modeling can also be used to analyse how close things are to one another. Geographers can see if things are occurring close to other things, whether or not they are up or down hill, and whether the atmosphere is different in these areas, just by looking at a map. This is an example of geography being a spatial science because it is examining the relationship between these occurrences in nature. Another important aspect of this modeling is that it can show networks that run into the same area. For example, this can be used to see how many different mountain streams are running into the same lake or river, as “the flow into the aquifer consist of mountain front recharge as a result of annual precipitation and also recharge from the constructed wetlands” (Fisher, 2005, P. 269). Since GIS can also be used to discover how much snowfall there has been in an area, this is a valuable tool when predicting possible floods. Many floods occur when the snow pack in an area is very high and the temperature rises very rapidly. By analyzing the different networks, it is possible for the geographer to predict a possible flood in the region, since “flow prediction is used to estimate the flow of water through the network based on network connectivity and data about water availability and consumption” (Longley et al, 2001, P. 141). This is important because with the proper warning, precautions can be made in order to prevent the flood from doing too much damage to human interests. All of this information can be shown on contour maps, which makes it very easy to analyse the data without actually having to visit the area in question. Geostatistics The manner in which the data models are analysed is through geostatistics. Geostatistics produce predictions about what will happen in the real world from this data, like how a geographer can predict a coming flood through the information that comes from contour maps. By looking at the networks, elevations, and environmental issues that are present in an area, a geographer can predict many different things about an area, without even having to travel to that area. This is different from the general application that this data that is done through data modeling, however, as graph theory and algebra are used in order to get exact numbers. For example, these calculations can discover exactly how much the water will rise in a lake or river if the temperature is above a certain level for a certain amount of time. This means that rather than simply discovering that the water will in fact rise, this process figures out with more precision how high it will rise and if there is a serious risk of a flood. In this case, only the second-order properties of the GIS data are used. This method is still not perfect, however, as the accuracy is largely dependant on the scale of the map and the distribution of the data that is collected. In addition, the skill level of non-geographer GIS operators is becoming much greater than geographer GIS operators, which means that these bugs are not being worked out as rapidly as they should be (Openshaw 1991). This is because many geographers still believe that GIS interferes with the integrity of spatial analysis by allowing for the computer to do everything. Therefore, is the data collected from one snow pack is a little off, the end result will not be completely correct. There is always the chance of a measurement being wrong, which is why mistakes happen in the end result of these equations. In order to combat these problems with measurement, an average is taken from the different areas, as long as they have similar circumstances surrounding them. What this means is that if each of the snow packs is in a certain area and at a similar altitude, then these snow packs should be averaged out because the level of snow should be relatively the same. By doing this, and discrepancies are made almost obsolete, which allows for the area’s behavior to better be predicted. These geostatistics are helped out by GIS, which, once again, shows where the different variables in the landscape take place. They measure the distance between things, both in altitude and pure distance, which is also helpful in determining how long things will take to happen. For example, water will travel more rapidly down a steep hill than it will down a meandering one. These statistics can also be used to link human beings to certain things. For example, a human being can be linked to an address and a place of employment through GIS, and also his or her movements can be traced. This is how things like online maps work, as an address is put into the field and directions to another location can be given. The software that makes his all happen is a GIS. This is what Taylor envisioned in 1976, as he believed that new geographical methods could be used in for sociological reasons, as well as geographical ones, but in 1991, he and Overton argued that this could also be used as a method of social control, since it can to used for political and militaristic reasons. Criticism In 1997, Openshaw argues against the claim that since all of this information is computerized, that the state can manipulate it to best serve its purposes. He believes that the state is not clever enough to manipulate the data in this manner and, therefore, it cannot be used to give improper information about an area in order to gain the support of the people. Because of this, the state will not be able to further its agenda by using state-implemented statistics, as he believed that GIS was too fool-proof to be tampered with in this manner. Flowerdew (1998) furthers this argument by stating that most of the people who have issues with GIS have not even used the system themselves and, therefore, their concerns about it being used incorrectly in a social context are unwarranted. These problems between geographers are, however, beginning to disappear, as GIS users and critics are beginning to work together in order to make the system better for all (Schuurman 2000). Another reason for criticism, writes Nadine Schuurman, is that “academic geographers have a love/hate relationship with GIS perhaps because we are so close to its faults and biases. This relationship is made more complex because GIS represents only one lens on the physical and social world, but this is the face to which the world has had the most exposure to” (Schuurman, 2004, P.2). Conclusion Geography as a spatial science is a unique question because there are issues that cannot be permanently resolved, but must still be the basis for the current research on the subject. This leads to many problems that must be figured out by geographer, as they must take the route that offers the least number of significant problems. One of the largest problems is defining the spatial location of the things that are being studies, as this requires for the information that is collected before the scientific analysis starts to be accurate. For example, the amount of snow in a particular snow pack can influence whether or not a flood takes place, so having the proper information is mandatory. These problems in collecting the data can impact the end result of a study, so averages must be taken by using the most reliable information that is present at that particular time. Geographers, however, are able to analyse the material very effectively and have methods with which to lessen the mistakes that are made as much as possible. In doing so, they can effectively examine what will occur in the environment in the near future through the use of GIS. References Fisher, Peter and Unwin, David J. (2005). Re-presenting Geographical Information Systems. West Sussex, England. John Wiley &Sons, Ltd. Flowerdew, R., (1998) “Reacting to Ground Truth in Environment and planning”. A., 30, Pages 289-301. Longley, Paul A.; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; and Rhind, David W. (2001). Geographic Information Systems and Science. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons. Openshaw, S., (1991). “A view on the GIS crisis in geography or using GIS..... in Environment and planning”. A., 23, Pages 621-628. Openshaw, S., (1997). “The truth about Ground Truth” Transactions in GIS. vol. 2,no.1. Pages 7-24. Schuurman, Nadine. (2004). GIS : A Short Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Schuurman, Nadine., (2000). “Trouble in the heartland: GIS and its critics in the 1990’s”. Progress in human geography., 24, 4. Pages 569-590. Stillwell, John; Geertman, Stan; and Openshaw, Stan. (1999). Geographical Information and Planning: European Perspectives (Advances in Spatial Science). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Taylor, P., (1976). “An Interpretation of the quantification debate in British Geography”. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. volume 1, Pages 129-142. Taylor, P & Overton, M., (1991). “Further thoughts on geography and GIS in Environment and planning”. A., 23, Pages 1087-1094. Case for Geography as a Social Science Introduction Geography can fit into the social sciences when “maps of terrain, land use, housing, population density, age structure, race and ethnicity, household size, occupation and income, and special topics relevant to individual metropolitan areas” (Wheeler, 2005, P. 164) in an area are considered. One such example of this is when dealing with the education levels in certain areas of the country. In doing so, classism also becomes an issue, as people of a certain class often live in a similar geographic area although “the recent popularity of metaphors of networks and flows in sociology and human geography is an attempt to avoid the misrepresentation of simplistic identifications between areas and social groups” (Sayer, 2000, P. 114). Geographers can group together people based on their class and then analyse the different geographic areas, which makes this very similar to sociology. The Classes This argument can be started with the premise that “the concentration of resources in the white suburbs and the pushing out of black residents to the urban periphery produced a specific racial and class urban structure“ (Hamnett, 1996, P. 101). The article “Privileging Class: Toward a Critical Psychology of Social Class in the Context of Education” examines the role that social class play on the psyche of a student and the affect that this has on his or her academic performance. Although “universal access to public elementary and secondary school in the United States is a central pillar supporting the American Dream,” it is not always a “combination of hard work and individual traits, such as perseverance and intelligence” (Ostrove and Cole, 2003, P. 683) that leads to financial success. In this article, the authors suggest that since the lower classes of society are stereotypes as being less intelligent than the higher classes, that many student will not live up to their full potential because they are too preoccupied with overcoming these stereotypes because “social classes are constituted in places, so class character varies geographically” (Peet, 1989, P. 14). This leads them to put too much pressure on themselves and, in turn, allows for them to be overcome by these expectations. Poorer students are also likely to receive a lesser education, as the better and more experienced teachers in society will not want to teach in poorer neighbourhoods, as these neighbourhoods generally have a higher crime rate and are therefore more dangerous. Social class also leads to students accepting a social identity that might lead them down a certain career path, based on what the expectations placed upon them are. They are less likely to want to exceed their expectations because they feel as if their roles in the society are already predefined. They can also feel as though if they are to attend a more prestigious school that they will forget where they came from and will enter a completely different society where they are an outsider. Social class also affects the treatment that a student will receive at school, as those who do not have expensive name brand clothes are often the targets of bullying and teasing. This can cause the student to live down to the treatment that he or she receives and be content with simply getting out of school, rather than succeeding. These students can also be unfairly accused if something goes wrong at the school, as those with less money are often stereotyped as being troublemakers or sometimes even dangerous. The grades that these students receive will very often reflect this status in society, as they are expected to fail because of their social class. This study gives examples of why those from lower social classes often do not perform to the same level as those from high social classes. The issues discussed show that it is often not simply a matter of them being less intelligent, but rather an issue of living up, or down, to the stereotypes that are placed on the various classes because “class as capital becomes globally mobile, exploiting a working class that is divided by race and gender in geographically diverse way” (Panelli, 2004, P. 90). The Learning Gap The article “Social Class in Public Schools” shows that while the gap between the classes in academic achievement has closed since the early 1970s, it is still very significant and much work needs to be done in order to improve this condition. This study shows that poor students and students who attend inner city schools are much more likely to drop out than students who attend school in suburban neighbourhoods. This problem also has racial issues, since Hispanics and African-Americans are more likely to attend these inner city schools. Poorer student also continue to score 10% lower on tests that the rest of society, while upper class students score much higher than the other classes. One reason for this is the amount of money that is put into the schools in different neighbourhoods. Schools in the inner city will usually have many more students per classroom than in suburban schools but, despite this, the government spends more per student on suburban schools. This causes the teachers to be less qualified for the subjects that they teach, for the subject materials to be outdated and unacceptable, and for the school grounds to be older and in much worse shape. There are also more safety issues in these schools, as violence is more common and, therefore, many students are afraid to attend school. Another reason for the difference in education levels is that “poor children bring many problems to school than that more affluent children usually avoid, all of which affect their readiness to learn and their ability to take advantage of what they are taught” (Hochschild, 2003, P. 827). This shows that these children, often times, have much larger issues to deal with than attaining an adequate education and, therefore, they will not take their education as seriously as they should. These social issues that they face include “poor health and nutrition, greater family instability, more frequent moves, less safe communities, fewer books and educational resources” (Hochschild, 2003, P. 827) which makes it easier to see why many of these students find it difficult to concentrate to the level that they should in school. This study shows that the differences between the education a child receives is a class issue because governments will be more likely to spend money on students from higher classes because they see them as having higher achievement levels. It is a vicious cycle because those in the lower classes find it difficult to achieve beyond the stereotypes that they are given, due to the fact that they are not given the same levels of materials, teachers, facilities, or technology as those from higher income communities. In order for this trend to be discontinued, the government must step in and make a commitment to giving every student the same level of education, or else this disparity will continue for generations to come. This is proven by the fact that “behavioural geographers have generated maps of how individuals and groups, defined by age, education, gender and so on, perceive familiar or new spaces” (Sibley et al., 2005, P 30). Race as an Issue The book Class and Schools: Using Social, Economic, and Educational Reform to Close the Black-White Achievement Gap, by Richard Rothstein, also examines the impact that class has on the education levels that students receive, but he breaks it down into a racial issues as well. He does this because white students are more likely to be better off financially than black students are. The author also discusses how social class give the parents “different styles of childrearing, different ways of disciplining their children, different ways of communicating expectations, and even different ways of reading to their children” (Rothstein, 2004, P. 2), which can all have an effect on how the child reacts to an educational environment. Along with this, comes different personality traits within the children, as those parents in middle or upper class families will often have jobs where they are required to collaborate and discuss their jobs in an organized environment, while lower class parents tend to work jobs where they take orders from someone else and simply follow them. Parents, in turn, will take these values home with them and pass them onto their children. Children from lower income families are also more likely to move around a lot at a young age, and even change school quite regularly, due to the lack of low-income housing available. This instability can cause children to have problems adapting to each new school and, therefore, will lead to them having problems academically. They also have more medical problems, as they are less likely to have health insurance which, in turn, means that they are less likely to have a regular visit to the dentist or eye doctor. Having poor eyesight can cause the child to become disinterested in learning, since reading and writing become more difficult for the child than they are for other children in the country. Each of these characteristics adds to the social problems that these children face and, therefore, makes it more difficult for them to get the proper education level. This book goes a long way in describing the problems that different social groups encounter when attempting to give their children the same opportunities that the upper classes in society receive. Conclusion By analyzing education by comparing different geographical locations, it is possible to see that there is a disparity between different areas of the country, or even within a city. Since geographical methods can be applied to this, such as plotting areas that have a lower academic level and then looking for a pattern, it is possible for geography to come together with the social sciences in “the internal geography of the region (the presence of barriers, internal boundaries, crenulations of the regional boundary, etc)” (Haining, 1990, P. 69). Works Cited Haining, Robert. (1990). Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environmental Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hamnett, Chris. (1996). Social Geography: A Reader. London: Arnold. Hochschild, Jennifer L. (December 2003). “Social Class in Public Schools”. Journal of Social Issues. Volume 59. Issue 4. P. 821. Ostrove, Joan M. and Cole, Elizabeth R. (2003). "Privileging Class: Toward a Critical Psychology of Social Class in the Context of Education". Journal of Social Issues. Vol. 59. No. 4. Pages 677-692. Panelli, Ruth. (2004). Social Geographies: From Difference to Action. London: Sage Publications. Peet. Richard. (1989). New Models in Geography: The Political-Economy Perspective. London: Unwin Hyman Ltd. Rothstein, Richard. (2004). Class and Schools: Using Social, Economic, and Educational Reform to Close the Black-White Achievement Gap. Washington DC: Economic Policy Institute. Sayer, Andrew. (2000). Realism and Social Science. London: Sage Publications. Sibley, David; Jackson, Peter; Atkinson, David; and Washbourne, Neil. (2005). Cultural Geography: A Critical Dictionary of Key Concepts. New York. I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. Wheeler, James O. (2005). Urban Geography in America, 1950-2000: Paradigms and Personalities. Milton Park: Routledge. Read More