Applying Learning Theories - Essay Example

Applying learning Theories Learning is defined as a process that enhances one’s knowledge. It brings positive change in one’s behavior, pattern, opinion and outlook. It is a process that helps in bringing together the cognitive, behavioral and environmental experiences and influences. Learning process is explained by means of learning theories. A learning theory describes about the process of learning in relation to the education. These theories are employed by the teacher to enhance the process of learning in a classroom. There are mainly three learning theories. The Behavioral Theory or behaviorism stresses on the learning of facts and skills as stated by the authorities. For example, school board and the teachers. Behaviorist believes the environment is a great influencing factor in the process of learning. The theory of behavioral learning also contends that contiguity and reinforcement, whether positive or negative, are essential to the learning process. Characteristics Behavior, which is positively reinforced, will occur again; discontinuous reinforcement is particularly successful. Information must be presented in small proportions so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements arouse similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning. Principles Practice takes in the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps The learner must make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback There is a gradual introduction of difficult questions to get positive response and thus leading to positive reinforcement. The good responses must be followed with the positive reinforces such as verbal praise, good grades etc. 2 B.F.Skinner’s Behaviorist theory works on the similar grounds of conditioning theory as proposed by Pavlov and Watson. They observed that the formation of behavior is essentially related to the external environment .Pavlov established the classical conditioning paradigm. Watson studied overt behavior and concentrated on the conditioning of emotions. Skinner model of behavior is based on observation, he studied environment control on the behavior and explained operant behavior rather than respondent behavior played greater role in life. An Operant conditioning can become a means for behavior modification. “When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.” (B.F Skinner) Reinforcement is main constituent in the Skinners S-R Theory and a rein forcer is anything that strengthens a response. Good grades, a verbal praise, feeling of accomplishment are all positive rein forcers. There are negative rein forcers that refer to adverse stimulus or response. A great deal of attention is given to schedules of reinforcement and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior. Behaviorist theory and Instruction Design The Behaviorist theory is involved in the following. Behavioral objectives movement; the teaching machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction. Based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954.Programmed instructions concentrated on the hardware than on the course development. Individualized instructions are used in reading science, math .Computer assisted learning is much a drill, and practice controlled by program me developer rather by the learner. The system approach is employed in the language laboratories, teaching machines, multimedia presentations etc. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with the steps designed towards the development of instructions. Key Concepts The theoretical ideas given by Skinner are acceptable in the present learning scenario. The behavior theory is applicable in educating children in their early childhood development. Therapist uses his ideas to help people overcome phobias and maladaptive behavior. Immediate rewards are not always the positive rein forcers but they play important role in the various types of learning. It has been observed that the delayed rewards are much effective. Combination of reward and punishment can speed learning. Programmed teaching materials provide immediate feedback to students' responses and are utilized in today's classrooms to teach effectively certain types of material. Skinner's ideas have also been adopted to teach 3 mentally retarded and autistic children, are used in industry to reduce job accidents, and are used in numerous applications in health-related fields. Cognitive Theory As early as in 1920, people started finding limitations in the behaviorist theory of learning. There were some social behaviors, which remain unexplained even after following the process of reinforcement. Thus, Cognitive theory observed that individual is in the process of learning. This learning is linked with the information previously learnt and the present information. The cognitive theory contends that people are in control of their own learning and as one learns, one organizes the information in the brain much like folders on a computer. Characteristics People learn and use information in different ways People learn using their intuition and perception. This technique is also used to model people’s behavior, which is influenced by cultural, educational and motivational factors. This theory focuses on the overall development of individual that is thinking, problem solving, concept understanding, and information processing and overall intelligence. Principle As studied by Myint Swe Khine and IssaM.Saleh, Learning and development depend on learners’ experiences. Learners are mentally active in their attempts to make sense of those experiences. Learners construct—they do not record—knowledge in the process of developing an understanding of their experiences. Knowledge that is constructed depends on Learners’ Prior Knowledge. Learning is enhanced in a social environment. Learning requires practice and feedback. (Myint Swe Khine,Issa M. Saleh, 2010) Cognitive Theory as proposed by Piaget Jean Piaget was interested in knowing the contribution of environment in the development and learning of individual and explored changes in internal cognitive structure. He identified four stages of mental growth (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational).Behavior is controlled through mental organization called Schemes. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes, which he termed reflexes. These reflexes control behavior throughout life. Infants use reflexes to adapt to the environment, which are replaced by constructed schemes. Stages of Cognitive Development as identified by Piaget 4 Sensorimotor stage is infancy stage, the intelligence is exhibited by motor activity, as they grow the memory grows so does the skills. Physical mobility allows child to develop intellectual abilities. Pre-operational stage is also called Toddler and Early Childhood Stage. In this period intelligence is proved by the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is non -logical, non-reversible. Concrete operational stage This is Elementary and early adolescence stage. In this stage logical and systematic manipulation of symbols develops. Mental actions are reversible. Formal operational stage is Adolescence and adulthood stage. In this stage, intelligence is exhibited through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Cognitive theory and Instruction Design Cognitive and Behaviourism paradigms, both concentrate on the acquisition of knowledge. The task is broken down into steps for a behaviourist .A cognitive scientist would analyse the task break into smaller chunks and use the information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex stage. Mergel Brenda suggested “Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e. artificial intelligence.”(Mergel Brenda ,1998) Key concepts The cognitive learning principles have strong potential for educational applications. As cited by Betty .B in the article The application of cognitive Theory, McGilly (1994) recounted the findings of a research team who identified six expert strategies a student needed for reading with comprehension. Understanding the purpose of reading, activating relevant background knowledge, allocating attention to relevant rather than irrelevant content, evaluating content for internal consistency and compatibility with prior knowledge, monitoring, comprehension of passages as reading progresses, drawing and testing inferences. This team developed an instructional technique called reciprocal teaching where initially the teacher leads and models instruction. (Betty B Blenton) 5 Constructivists Theory Constructivism Theory is the theory of knowledge based on the concept that an individual generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between his experiences and ideas. By reflecting on one’s experiences, one can construct understanding of the world one lives in. Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental models to accommodate new experiences Characteristics It uses raw data and primary sources, in addition to manipulative, interactive, and physical materials. Assigning tasks to the students use cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyse," "predict," and "create." Build off and use student responses when making "on-the-spot" decisions about teacher behaviours, instructional strategies, activities, and content to be taught. Search out students' understanding and prior experiences about a concept before teaching it to them. Encourage communication between the teacher and the students and among the students. Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them thoughtful, open-ended questions, and encourages them to ask questions to each other. Ask follow up questions and seek elaboration after a student's initial response. Principles Learning leads to knowledge. Learning must start with the issues and help children to construct the meaning they are looking for. Meaning requires understanding the issues either in whole or in parts. The parts must be understood in parts of whole. Students follow certain mental models and in order to teach well, these mental models must be understood. The purpose of learning is to construct a right meaning and not just memorising the right answers. Education is inherently interdisciplinary activity, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning. Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by representing the natural complexity of the world. Lev Vygotsky: Russian psychologist and philosopher, Lev Vygotsky, in 1930s, is associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasized the influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supports a discovery model of learning. This model places the 6 teacher in an active role while the students' mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of discovery and understanding. Culture makes two major contributions in the child’s intellectual development. First, Children inquire a great deal of content of thinking through culture and second, the surrounding culture provides children means of thinking or the tools of intellectual adaptations as referred by Vygotskians. Cognitive development is the result of dialectical process and a child learns mainly from the people around him. The person around the child does much of the problem solving but gradually the responsibility of problem solving comes to the child himself. Language is the primary form of interaction, which adults transfer to the child. Constructivism and Instructional Design The constructivist theory of learning provides authentic tasks – contextualization of the desired learning. It helps in realising the real world; case based learning methods rather than predetermined instructional sequences. It helps in fostering reflective practice. Enables in context and content dependent instructions. Provide real world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequence. It does not inculcate the competition among learners for recognition rather supports collaborative construction of knowledge. Key Concepts The Learning theory of constructivism incorporates a learning process in which students achieve their own results through the creative aid of the teacher. The best way to plan worksheets, lesson plans, and study skills for the students, a teacher needs to create a curriculum, which allows each student to solve problems while the teacher observes and flexibly guides the students to the correct answer, while encouraging critical thinking. Conclusion The development of learning theories has lead to the better understanding of learning. How the knowledge is imparted? What are the influencing factors? What means one should adopt etc, such questions have found a solution. Of all the paradigms of teaching available, the behavioural paradigm still dominates much of our educational practice, we have gradually moved toward the cognitive paradigm in our schools Cognitive paradigm is applicable to language reading programs, cooperative learning methods, student projects and self-managed assignments, and (often but not always) "extracurricular" student-centred activities such as music, theatre, and sports. As learning is a continuous process, these theories have given a specific direction to this process and have helped educators to compete with today’s competitive and learning environment. 7 References Skinner B.F, Operant Conditioning [retrieved 25 March 2011] http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Gilly, Mac, The Application of the Cognitive Learning Theory to Instructional Design Journal article by Betty B. Blanton; International Journal of Instructional Media, Vol. 25, 1998, [retrieved 24 March 2011] Mergel Brenda, Instructional Design and Learning Theory, Educational communications and Technology, University of Saskatchewan, May1998. Myint Swe Khine · Issa M. Saleh (2010). New Science of Learning: Cognition, Computers and Collaboration in Education.  New York:  Springer Read More