Philosophy and Theory of Architecture - Essay Example

?Philosophy and the theory of architecture The philosophical underpinnings of Buddhist architecture and the role of the Baims Si in the development of Buddhist architectural thought in China Introduction This paper examines some of the important ideas, motives and devices behind Buddhist architecture. It is therefore a philosophical examination of the key concepts that are involved in the Buddhist styles and ideals of architecture. It begins with a historical overview of this form of expression of religious thought through architecture leading up to the position of today. In so doing, it discusses the roots of this phenomenon, and surveys the different phases it has been and is going through and its physical spread and influence as well. That is, it takes a tour through both changes over time as well as spatially. The focus is mainly on the architecture of Buddhist temples, particularly those found in China. However, as the reader will come to know, if not known already, in Buddhism there is a variety of buildings that are considered as religious or spiritual spaces besides temples. A case study is made of the Baima Si, which is the White Horse Temple in the Henan province of China. This temple (Si) was chosen for its historical significance, as will be explained later, as well as the fact that it represents a unique amalgamation of architectural styles. It also functioned as a model for other such buildings and thereby played a pivotal role in moulding a special wave of thinking on architecture, which makes it deserve serious attention. For contrastive purposes, important comparisons are also drawn with architectural features belonging to Buddhist temples elsewhere in the world, especially in other Far Eastern countries that are heartlands of Buddhism. In addition, some comparisons are also highlighted between Buddhist architecture and what is found in other religious architectural expressions, especially of Christian, Hindu and Islamic origin. After the distinguishing and other special features are identified for Chinese Buddhist temples, an attempt is then made to explain these and the philosophy behind them. Buddhist architecture In Buddhism, although the temple is the main place for spiritual practices, there are also other spiritual spaces. These are the pagodas, which are towers like broader based minarets, stupas, which are dome shaped monuments, and grottos, which are caves used for specific spiritual practices within a more isolated environment. They are all holy and made to be serene and tranquil. The temples function more as monasteries for collective practices. As far as Chinese temples are concerned, Buddhist philosophy has been described as the greatest impetus behind religious art and architecture in China (Phuoc, 2010). Initially, Buddhism was practised in ordinary settings in China, such as people’s houses, but as demand grew, then special buildings were constructed. These buildings proved to be far more interesting than the Confucian and Taoist places and rich in architectural detail reflecting an equally richer philosophy. Hindu and Islamic philosophies of architecture share some commonality with Buddhist architecture. The Hindu influence is mostly evident in the early temples. Thus, there is a direct connection with Hindu architecture as they gave roots to Buddhist architecture. Connections with other religions are more indirect. A prominent style of Christian architecture was Gothic architecture during the medieval period. This was related with scholastic philosophy (Radding & Clark, 1994) in which there was an attempt to develop a comprehensive and integrated solution for various tasks including the construction of churches. An interesting parallel is drawn between the ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas who was one of these aforementioned philosophers and Buddhist architecture in that he saw churches as symbolising heaven on earth. This is similar in some ways to the Buddhist concept of heaven but with some fundamental differences. Whereas only one heaven is envisaged in Christianity and there is a desire to establish the heavenly kingdom on earth, Buddhism sees many heavens high up and the earth merely as a reflection. Moreover, in Buddhism the concept of heaven is more a state of mind rather than a physical place one goes to after death (ksridhammananda, n.d.). Furthermore, this state can be experienced during earthly existence, and as such, one creates a heaven on earth through his/her own effort. As far as the architecture is concerned, the temple is symbolically a reflection of heaven on earth, just as the church is seen as symbolising heaven on earth. However, whereas in mainstream Christianity there is little focus on the inner dimensions of worship, in Buddhism, the architecture provides the place to focus on this very dimension. Similarly, Islamic philosophy is also less concerned with the outer, though there are many beautiful examples of that too, and emphasises the ultimate motive, which is to please God, i.e. to construct for the sake of God and facilitate the people in their worship of Him. As mentioned earlier, Buddhism too attaches more importance to the inner instead of the outer aspects. In this way, physical beauty usually becomes a natural outcome of a building, but the real beauty lies in how people make effective use of the place to develop themselves spiritually. The purpose of such religious architecture is therefore to facilitate inner transformation in people. However, if we look at some outward features, there are also some important similarities. Actually, there are associations that are both external as well as internal. Perhaps the most notable of these is the link with the skyward aspect in their architecture. In Islamic architecture, the most obvious symbolic link with the sky or heaven is the minaret. Although the Buddhist pagoda may seem like the Buddhist counterpart of the minaret, there is also a heavenly link in temples. This heavenly link in Buddhist architecture is the upturned corners of temple roofs. In Buddhist philosophy, this creates a highly symbolic connection between the earthly temple in which ordinary people dwell and the heaven, literally Pure Land, in which divine beings dwell. There are also some practical benefits to this special Far Eastern architectural design of roofs, such as the control of sunlight and water, but the hidden association is far more significant. Buddhist temples in China China boasts numerous Buddhist temples. They exist all over China, but the different temples share a number of similar characteristics, some of which are important identifying features of a Buddhist temple. They also reflect certain periods with different approaches to architecture, which are underpinned by differences in philosophical thought. The brief survey of Buddhist temples in China that follows includes some well-known temples as well as those that are particularly interesting from a philosophical and architectural perspective. Among the famous Buddhist temples in China are Guanghua Temple, the Tanzhe Temple near Beijing and the Lama Temple in Beijing. The first two temples are centuries old whereas Lama temple was built relatively recently in 1694 during the Qing dynasty (Buddhism-Tourism.com, 2007b). These three temples are pictured below. Guanghua temple in Fujian province (Source: http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/china/temples/guanghua-temple.html) Tanzhe temple near Beijing (Source: http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/china/temples/tanzhe-temple.html) Lama temple in Beijing (Source: http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/china/temples/lama-temple.html) Also in Beijing is the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha. It was first built during the Tan dynasty. The Temple of the Sleeping Buddha is so called because it houses a statue of the Buddha in the sleeping position with his twelve disciples around him. The main hall is also named aptly as the Hall of the Sleeping Buddha. Inside the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha (Source: http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/china/temples/lama-temple.html) The four Chinese Buddhist temples above provide good examples of both early and more recent styles of architecture and how they have changed. The Tanzhe and Lama temples are two more temples that display special distinguishing features of Buddhist architecture in general. The Tanzhe Temple for example is around 1600 years old, which is even older than the city of Beijing. It is set near hills with mulberry trees and a large pool, so it is also known as the Dragon Pool and Mulberry Tree Temple. The architecture of this temple has features of both the Ming and Qing styles. There is a main courtyard with tall gingko and other trees so there is plenty of greenery, and there is a special stupa yard containing some famous monks. The halls include the Hall of Abstinence, the Hall to GuanYin (Goddess of Mercy), and the Mahavira Hall (of Supreme Power), which contains five huge Buddhas together with the 12 Bodhisattvas and the 24 celestial beings. Kublai Khan’s daughter is also buried in this temple. The Yonghe gate of the Lama Temple (Source: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/beijing-yonghe-gong-lama-temple.htm) The Lama Temple is also known as the Yonghe Gong. It is oriented on a north-south axis with the main gate at the southern end. The temple has five main halls known as the Hall of the Heavenly Kings, the Hall of Harmony and Peace, the Hall of Everlasting Protection, the Hall of the Wheel of the Law, and the Hall of Ten Thousand Happinesses. A courtyard separates each of these halls. Inside the main Hall of Harmony and Peace are three Buddhist statues, one for each of three ages, i.e. past, present and future. Gautama Buddha is the Buddha of the present whereas the Buddha of the past is Kasyapa Matanga and the Buddha of the future is Maitreya Buddha. Another large statue of the future Buddha is found in the Hall of Ten Thousand Happinesses, which has a special significance because it was sculpted from a single block of white sandalwood. This was a gift from the seventh Dalai Lama, which explains why the architecture has a Tibetan influence. The roof of the temple has yellow tiles. Wanfu Ge (Hall of Ten Thousand Happinesses), which contains a statue of the future Buddha (Source: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/beijing-yonghe-gong-lama-temple.htm) The Bao Shan Chan Si in the Xi Shan Mountains in the city of Suzhou is similarly set in natural surroundings. The name itself describes this setting. Bao means ‘surrounded’, which reflects the fact that the mountain is surrounded by water. There are also other temples in this mountain but this is the largest. This temple is actually a complex consisting of several halls, small courtyards separating each of the halls, plenty of trees and flowers lining outside places, gardens, fountains and pools, spectacular views of nature, and so on. These typically natural settings, although linked with the important concepts of balance and harmony and deeply pleasing, seem to contradict the Buddhist philosophy of the meaninglessness of the material world of illusions. Perhaps the outward architectural beauty, i.e. including the natural settings, is a pointer to the real direction that lies within the temples, and more than being a natural attraction in its own right, it is instead a natural outward manifestation when inner beauty is acquired. Understanding this requires some knowledge of Buddhist philosophy, which is explained further below after first identifying the typical features of Buddhist temples. Typical architectural features of Buddhist temples Although there is plenty of variety between different Chinese and other Buddhist temples, there are also common similarities in their architecture. They typically have large halls that are connected together by small courtyards, have upturned roof corners, use symmetrical layouts, have a bright red or yellow exterior, face the south, and are set in natural surroundings. The layout is usually comprised of a number of rectangular blocks and the most common materials used are wood, stone and brick. Hastings (2001: 695) describes this commonality in the following words: “The commonest arrangement of Buddhist architecture is as follows: - In the main front there is the first gateway (zhan-men), wherein usually two guardian figures (er-tien) are kept. Then comes the t’ien-wang-tien (‘temple’). In the centre of this temple an image of Maitreya with the features of Pu-tai is enshrined; behind Maitreya, and back to back, is a standing figure of Vedadeva. In the four corners are the zu-tien-wang (‘four heavenly kings’); in the North-east is Virupaaksha with a harp, in the South-east Dhrita-rashtra with a sword, in the North-west Vaisravana with an umbrella, and in the South-west Virudhaka grasping a serpent. Behind the t’ien-wang-tien is the ta-tien, known by various names, such as Ta-hziung-pao-tien or Fou-tien. Here the Buddha and eighteen Arhats are enshrined. Still further behind the ta-tien are sometimes the fa-t’ang (‘preaching hall’), tsang-ching-ka (‘library’), and fan-chang (‘cloister for head priest’). To the right and left of the above buildings are corridors, divided into sections, used for various purposes. Generally there are the ke-t’and (‘reception hall’), ch’ich-lan-tien (‘shrine for the guardian god’), tzu-shih-tien (shrine for the founder of the sect’), shan-t’and (‘meditation hall’), ch’i-t’ang (‘eating hall’), yun-zhui-t’ang (‘cloister for mendicant priests’), etc. To the right and left of the t’ien-wang-tien a bell tower and a drum-tower stand facing each other, sometimes with the addition of a pagoda”. (Hastings, 2001: 695) Based on the architecture of Buddhist temples in China, the temples can be divided into three periods. These are the periods of the Han, North and South, and Tang dynasties. However, this division identifies with the prevailing dynasties of the time and gives no direct indication of the philosophical stances of their times. Another type of division by Phuoc (2010: 182) reflects an important overall architectural feature of each of the three periods, which are as follows: Period of Importation (68-475 CE) Period of Transition (c. 475-618 CE) Period of Assimilation (after 618 CE) The Period of Importation is so called because there were originally foreign influences at the time when Buddhism arrived in China, not only from Gandhara, but also some from Turkistan. There was therefore a mixture of Chinese and Gandhara styles of architecture in the beginning. During the Period of Transition, there was a gradual introduction of greater Chinese elements in the architecture, and during the Period of Assimilation, the transformation was completed such that they now properly “reflect the Chinese temperament” (Phuoc, 2010: 182). It is an unfortunate observation that many Buddhist temples in China have been in a declining state in the recent past. There are attempts to revive Buddhism nowadays but the situation is not the same for Buddhism in China as it used to be in ancient times. The underlying philosophy of Buddhist architecture Buddhist philosophy teaches of the insignificant nature of the physical environment at the same time as stressing the importance for it to be conducive to spiritual growth. The significance of the colour red is its association with the sun and therefore good luck (Petrillo, 2007). The southern orientation is also arranged so as to maximise the chi energy. The principles of feng shui (lit. ‘Wind and water’) are central to Chinese philosophy in general and apply in particular to Chinese Buddhist architecture. Its principles explain many of the elements and aspects of this style of architecture. Thus, in order to truly understand this philosophy, it is necessary to understand at least the basic principles of feng shui. The essence however, is to organise the architecture in such a way that makes it favourable according to feng shui and thereby maximise the positive energies and effects. The insignificance of the material world is encapsulated in the Chinese expression ‘si da jie kong’. It means that the ‘four big things are void’, namely the elements earth, water, wind and fire. The ‘earth’ corresponds to the ground including mountains, the water to the seas, rivers and lakes, the wind to the air around us, and the fire to the heat of the Sun. In terms of the body, earth represents the body of flesh and bones, water represents the bodily fluids such as blood, wind is the breath of life, and fire is the bodily heat. The point is that all the elements, earth, water, wind and fire, are transitory and therefore ‘kong’ (void). Once this concept is properly understood, people would attach less importance to outward realities and focus instead on building the inner architecture. Attachment to outward forms and material possessions only increases worries. It does not give peace of mind or peace to the soul unless and until there is inner peace. The physical architecture is significant to a degree, but it is also illusory. The real need is for architecture to support spiritual growth within a peaceful atmosphere. These aspects show that there are very important underlying principles that are applied in Buddhist architecture. There is also a strong association between notions of perfection and two important qualities, which are geometrical harmony and blending in with the natural surroundings. The philosophy behind Buddhist architecture therefore has aspects that are more in common with the mystical side of other religions than with their mainstream religious thought. The purpose is focused on self-development rather than outward worship. Buddhist philosophy emphasised the need to return to a way of life that respects nature. It is similar in this respect to Taoism, which also emphasises the need to live by being close to nature. This kind of thinking is sadly lacking in modern times among many people, especially in the West, although some Western philosophers such as John Dewey did understand the need for this connection. The present and growing awareness of the importance of environmental aspects associated with architecture is a return to a way of life that the ancients already understood intimately, and which continued to be expressed through Buddhist philosophy. On the subject of modernism, Leach (1997) described it as “soulless container architecture”. This kind of architecture, characterised for example, by rather unimaginative and lifeless designs, and especially an extensive use of dull concrete, is centred on physical needs. This is another aspect therefore that contrasts the present with Buddhist architecture, in which the entire effort is centred on the needs of the soul and less so on the body. Modernism however, is now being gradually replaced by a more environmentalist outlook, so hopefully things are improving and there will be a renewed interest in Buddhist and other similar philosophical principles of architecture. Case study: The Baima Si All the above and other such Buddhist temples in China and elsewhere are now popular tourist attractions in addition to fulfilling their spiritual function. However, this brief survey of Chinese Buddhist temple architecture would not be complete without mentioning the Baima Si or White Horse Temple in the old part of Luoyang in the Henan province. Hence, this special temple was chosen for a closer examination. This temple is historically significant because it was constructed to commemorate the arrival of Buddhism into China from India, or more precisely the Gandhara civilisation, which is now in present day North Western Pakistan. The impact was profound. It was not only religious but also philosophical and it defined new moral and ethical standards to complement the previously existing Confucian and Taoist ideals. There is also another interesting background associated with this temple. The white horse in the name is in honour of the white horse brought over by two Indian Buddhist monks in response to the Han emperor Mingdi’s dream and desire to learn more about the new religion. He specially requested these monks to introduce Buddhism in China. The two horses now mark the main south facing entrance in stone (see photo below), and the two Indian Buddhist monks are buried in the main courtyard. The original sutras they brought with them are stored in a terrace known as the Cool and Clear Terrace. The old gate of the White Horse Temple (Source: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/china/white-horse-temple.htm) The temple also features a large Buddha statue, an old heavy bell, a beautifully decorated Hall of Mahavira from the Yuan dynasty. A new Hall of the Thai Buddha and archway were added in 1992 but the original building is evidence of early Chinese-Gandhara architecture. The atmosphere in this temple is not so disturbed by tourism as with many other well-known temples in China. The temple is still in active use today and the atmosphere is a perfect example of peace and calm. The pagoda next to the temple is also ancient and equally precious and with interesting features. For example, it is said that if you clap your hands in front of the pagoda, echoes can be heard that sound like croaking frogs (Sacred Destinations, 2010). Thus, this temple is significant from a philosophical perspective because it ushered in a new era of religious architecture in China, and with it, a new way of thinking of how to create the right kind of spiritual space. The main design is clearly an amalgamation of both early Chinese and Gandharan architecture. There are elements of the Gandhara style, such as the red exterior, uniquely combined with elements that are Chinese in architecture, such as the upturned corners of the roofs. Concluding discussion This paper has shown that Buddhist architecture, including as expressed in China, is underpinned by specific thinking without which certain aspects would hold no significance. The philosophical stance also lends the architecture a unique identity, just as it does for any other style of architecture belonging to another belief system. The underlying philosophy therefore has to be understood to truly appreciate the architectural beauty, which does not relate to outward features alone. The layout fulfils particular needs, and in particular, the quality of balance is spectacularly exhibited in Buddhist architecture from making the buildings blend in with the natural surroundings, but there is more to this architectural style. In the main, Buddhist architecture places a great emphasis on trying to make a place as peaceful as possible and conducive for spiritual practices. This reflects the noble Buddha’s peaceful nature. Buddhist architecture is therefore designed to provide a place where people can respect nature and other people, and give attention to spiritual development to cultivate their souls. Although Buddhist temples and other Buddhist religious buildings are in themselves outwardly interesting and beautiful, they primarily offer a space for people to meditate and enjoy a profound inner experience to get relief from the sufferings of this earthly existence. Thus, the whole architecture is shaped to create a perfect environment for meditation and support spiritual growth. People can meditate anywhere but the specially built environment is designed to make the process easier for them to practice xiu xing (the Buddhist way of life). Every aspect also reminds the person of the importance of self-control, the taming of desires, and the search for nirvana (spiritual enlightenment). The peace and calmness provide the right kind of atmosphere for Samadhi, which is the required degree of concentration for meditation to be effective. An analogy would be a lotus flower, which although surrounded by dirty water, still manages to blossom into a beautiful flower. In the same way, the material world surrounds us but if the right conditions are created, in this case with the help of the architecture, the person can bloom to purify their soul. The Baima Si is a perfect example of the first period of Buddhist architectural influence in China, which therefore reflects some Ghandara philosophy as well. In fact, it was responsible for typifying the new philosophy in China. The new Buddhist architects were not only architects in the ordinary sense of the word as understood today, but also deeply reflective mystics. This explains the deep thinking that underlies their construction and layout, and the deep associations, reflections ands symmetries. Buddhist architecture is therefore a widely encompassing undertaking, something which requires very careful planning, thought and deliberation. References Hastings, James. 2001. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics: Algonquins-Art. Elibron. Ksridhammananda. N.d. Buddhist concept of heaven and hell. Available at http://www.ksridhammananda.com/pdf/BUDDHIST%20COINCEPT%20OF%20HEAVEN%20%20HELL.pdf [Accessed 20 March 2011]. Leach, Neil. 1997. Rethinking architecture: a reader in cultural theory. Routlege. Petrillo, Valerie. 2007. A kid’s guide to Asian American History: More than 70 activities. Chicago Review Press. Phuoc, Le Huu. 2010. Buddhist architecture. Grafikol. Radding, Charles M. & Clark, William W. 1994. Medieval Architecture, Medieval Learning: Builders and Masters in the Age of Romanesque and Gothic. Yale University Press. Websites Buddhist Tourism. http://www.buddhist-tourism.com. Sacred Destinations. http://www.sacred-destinations.com. Read More