Holism in Architecture: Definitions of Holism and Its Effects on Sentient Beings - Essay Example

Holism in Architecture: Definitions of Holism and its Effects on Sentient Beings, Society, and Environment Word Count: 5088 Introduction Holism, both as a concept and a framework, has increasingly influenced modern architectural principles and models, due to the rising interests of architects in the sustainability of their designs in relation to, not only its users, but also other sentient beings and the environment (Bachman, 2003, p.7; Smith and Bugni, 2006, p.123). Several scholars have investigated if holism is an end goal that can be concretely determined and controlled (Alexander, 1964; Bohm, 1980; Chatterjee, 2013). Theoretical physicist David Bohm does not view holism as an end goal, however, but as a state of being. He further believes that holism is not something people need to achieve for it to exist because “wholeness is what is real” (Bohm, 1980, p.9). He then asserts that conceptualising holism in architecture can be attained through a paradigm shift from a static view of reality to a holistic understanding of reality’s “whole nature” (Bohm, 1980, p.186; Wahl, 2007, p. 233). Thus, by saying “whole nature,” holism encompasses designers, builders and their products, and the effects of these built systems on users and other sentient beings in the environment, as well their impacts on the physical environment and society (Kraftl and Adey, 2008, p.214; Sherman, Shepley and Varni, 2005). This essay focuses on the theme of holistic practice in architecture. It treats wholeness and holism synonymously. It describes holism through David Bohm’s concept of the implicate order and Christopher Alexander’s phenomenology of wholeness. These concepts are valid to the research needs of this paper because they have similarities in how they see the unbroken wholeness of reality and consciousness, thereby reaffirming the validity of holism and its subsequent legitimate application in architectural thought and practices (Bachman, 2003). In addition, their differences in how wholeness can be characterised will help enrich the theory and practice of holism in architecture (Hensel, 2012). When combined, Bohm’s and Alexander’s theories can provide a reasonably holistic view of wholeness and offer a valid framework in integrating holism into architectural theories and practices (Hensel, 2012). Furthermore, this essay describes how holism may improve architecture’s effects on the health and well-being of humans, other sentient beings and the environment (Sherman et al., 2005). It also considers the products and practices of architecture and associated fine and applied arts and how they can support wholeness using Bohm’s and Alexander’s theories on wholeness in architecture. Review of Literature Reviewing important concepts in holism reveals their relevance to the understanding of the human mind and how the mind orders reality. Moreover, as Bohm (1980) asserts, people should finally see the world as it is, so that they can heal it back to wholeness. He emphasises that breaking reality into its parts damages reality too (Bohm, 1980, p.9). Firstly, however, people must realise that reality is not even divided at all, which starts with their mind and the language they use to think about and express their ideas (Bohm, 1980, p.35). This section reviews the concept of wholeness in general and how it works in and for architecture. David Bohm’s Concept of the Implicate Order Bohm (1980) starts his book, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, by describing the general philosophy that separates the “Ego” or the self from reality and how division impacts reality itself. He notes that the West has a dominant belief in fragmented reality, while the East denies it in philosophy, but not always in practice (Bohm, 1980, p.9). One of the essential problems with an atomistic or divided view of reality is that it eventually fragments reality too (Bohm, 1980, p.9). Bohm (1980) argues that thought shapes behaviours: We will thus be led to the illusion that the world is actually constituted of separate fragments and, as has already been indicated, this will cause us to act in such a way that we do in fact produce the very fragmentation implied in our attitude to the theory (Bohm, 1980, p.9). He asserts that when people think that they are detached from reality, they will act as if they are not part of reality too. They will behave without complete awareness of and responsiveness to the wholeness of the world they live in. This fragmented thought is wrong because reality is not divided into neat parts, but is interconnected as a whole, and because believing in fragmentation causes many social and environmental problems. Fragmentation in thinking is wrong because it does not capture the true essence of the wholeness of reality and existence, which can be described in the image of “undivided wholeness in flowing movement” (Bohm, 1980). Reality is in flux and, by that alone, people cannot conceive themselves as separated from this flowing movement. In addition, Bohm (1980) underlines the consequences of atomistic perceptions. He argues that fragmentation produces many problems inside the mind that, in turn, causes social problems: ..It is not an accident that our fragmentary form of thought is leading to such a widespread range of crises, social, political, economic, ecological, psychological, etc., in the individual and in society as a whole. (Bohm, 1980, p.21). Architecture then suffers a crisis if it approaches design with the assumption that their egos and their designs are detached from the world because they cannot fully determine and prepare for the effects of their works on different sentient beings and the ecology. Bohm’s worldview on wholeness helps in resolving the consequences of fragmentation because it shifts the paradigm of thinking that may change architectural principles and practices later on. To understand wholeness further, Bohm (1980) believes that everything exists in relation to one another through an undivided flowing process of “wholeness.” He asserts that the “implicate or enfolded order” underlies this wholeness of reality. Bohm (1980) explains that the “holomovement” “carries” the implicate order, where the former is “an unbroken and undivided totality” (p.191). He notes that people can abstract some parts of the holomovement, such as light and sound, but all these parts are interlinked, so they cannot be authentically studied in a divided sense from one another (Bohm, 1980, p.191). Moreover, the holomovement cannot be limited in any model or pushed to fit into a specific order or measured as a whole. Bohm (1980) underlines that the holomovement is “undefinable and immeasurable” (Bohm, 1980, p.191). By breaking the holomovement into its parts, people can only try to understand its parts, but they cannot fully appreciate and define their wholeness. Besides the functions and characteristics of the holomovement, Bohm (1980) illustrates that the explicate order is a product of the implicate order. Explicate order manifests through a component of sense perception and through the experience of this sense perception (Bohm, 1980, p.200). For instance, it can refer to the buildings that people see or the scents that come from visiting different places. Explicate order can also be viewed through the results of an instrument’s operations (Bohm, 1980, p.200). For example, the design of a building is a result of the operations of the architect’s use of different instruments. Bohm’s concept of wholeness stresses the importance of holism as a framework for architecture because an architect’s consciousness that forms designs which result to built environments also influences the rest of the implicate and explicate orders, while these designs also affect their consciousness too. Christopher Alexander’s Phenomenology of Wholeness Alexander (2002a; 2002b) agrees with Bohm that physical structures are not separate from people because he also believes that emotions, ideas and physical realities are interconnected (Peacock, 2007; Seamon, 2007, p.2). Alexander (2002b) underscores that the environment is a working whole already, which echoes the beliefs of Bohm regarding the wholeness of reality as it is. In “The Nature of the Universe,” of the book The Phenomenon of Life, Alexander (2002b) asserts that: (i) all space and matter, organic or inorganic, has some degree of life in it, and the matter/space is more alive or less alive according to its structure or arrangement. (ii) all matter/space has some degree of "self" in it, and that this self, or anyway some aspect of the personal, is something which infuses all matter/space, and everything we know as matter but now think to be mechanical. (p.4). He indicates that every space and matter has life in it and that these lives are all valid. He implies that architects should perceive space and matter as having inner lives, so the latter must be acknowledged and considered when making designs. Alexander and Bohm share the same principle regarding the wholeness of reality and the importance of this perspective to architecture. Alexander also offers his version of implicate and explicate orders of reality through his concept of the “centre.” He asserts that life originates from the wholeness underneath the surface of everything. He defines a centre as a: ...distinct set of points in space, which, because of its organisation, because of its internal coherence, and because of its relation to context, exhibits centeredness, forms a local zone of relative centredness with respect to the other parts of space. (Alexander, 2002a, p.323). Reality exists through the ways that these centres interact and intersect with one another. Furthermore, centres are composed of other centres. An object has several centres that produce its centrality (Alexander, 2002a, p.323). Material reality exists because of the structure and geometry of these centres. Architects should work within and for this wholeness paradigm to support its organic growth and development. By working within, they must see themselves as part of the holism. By saying work “for” this wholeness, they must use the holism paradigm to ensure that they support the holism’s balance of forces where no centre violates other centres. Alexander (1964 p.3) says: “The environment must be organised so that its own regeneration and reconstruction does not constantly disrupt its performance.” He indicates that architects must see their designs as something that interplays with the totality of reality, so they must not only think about how they impact the latter, but also consider how they can raise the quality of life. To support the notion of wholeness, Alexander (2002a) claims that “Fifteen Fundamental Properties” can determine wholeness in architecture. These properties came from decades of his and peers’ research on holistic designs that they found in nature and built structures. These are structural characteristics that depict wholeness and life. These properties are: (1) Levels of scale; (2) Strong centres; (3) Boundaries; (4) Alternating repetition; (5) Positive space; (6) Good shape; (7) Local symmetries; (8) Deep interlock and ambiguity; (9) Contrast; (10) Gradients; (11) Roughness; (12) Echoes; (13) The void; (14) Simplicity and inner calm; and (15) Not-separateness. Alexander (2002a) describes these properties of living structure. Levels of scale pertain to how the centre is strengthened through the smaller centres inside it and how the larger strong centres surround and embed it. Strong centres refer to how a strong centre needs a particular field-force-making impact from the combination of centres as its main origin of strength. Boundaries represent the field-like impact of the centre and how other ring-linked centres buttress it. Alternating repetition happens when centres become stronger through repetition and the inclusion of other centres between repeating ones. Positive space means that the centre gathers its strength partially from the forces of other centres that are immediately near them. Good shape happens when the strength of the centre relies on its shape and how the shape, its boundary and the space surrounding it consist of strong centres. Local symmetries pertain to how the intensity of one centre is improved through how smaller centres inside it are arranged in local symmetries. Deep interlock and ambiguity states that a particular centre increases its strength through its connection with other centres, to which the former also ambiguously belongs. Contrast shows that a centre becomes more vigorous through the sharp difference between its character and nearby centres’ characters. Gradients indicate that a graded set of different-sized centres strengthens other centres through higher field effects. Roughness pertains to how a centre increases its strength from the irregularities of sizes, shapes and configurations of other adjacent centres. Echoes depict how the centre’s strength relies on the sameness of angle, orientation, and systems of centres, a sameness that produces large centres for the centres inside them. The void refers to how the strength of the centre relies on the existence of a “still space” or an “empty centre” somewhere inside it. Simplicity and inner calm show that the centre is strong due to its simplicity, which means lessening the number of various centres inside it, while expanding the strength of these centres by increasing their weight. Not-separateness underscores that the life and power of a centre rely on how it interlinks with other centres around it in sometimes nearly indistinguishable ways. To summarise these components, nature embodies wholeness, and design is the human effort to produce the same wholeness. Alexander and Bohm offer holistic concepts and approaches that can help understand existing “wholeness” practices in architecture. Holism in Architecture: Effects on Humans Holism should not be diverged from other aspects that impact users’ views on wholeness, including its cultural components. Michel et al. (2006) show from their study that the human mind perceives holism through the lens of their race too. They learned that visual experiences that depend on racial similarities affect the sense of wholeness for users. What people see as important in their social interactions should also reflect in holistic designs. For instance, if they want to conserve power in their homes as part of their culture that wants to reduce waste, then their homes must be designed to be energy-efficient. More and more people are seeing that a good life means properly managing limited resources, including energy (Peacock, 2007). Human interactions and other social goals can affect the holistic processing of people’s experiences, which suggests that architects should also respond to these socialisation and social aspirations. Another study points out that, aside from social aspects, wholeness includes all buildings, including traditional and vernacular architectures. Memmott and Davidson (2008) explore the development of cross-cultural theory of architecture. They analyse buildings across cultural groups, particularly, the latter’s vernacular architecture. Vernacular architecture refers to architectural works, wherein owners themselves have designed and/or built their houses and other community structures using cheap local materials (Memmott and Davidson, 2008, p. 55). Vernacular architecture includes built homes in slum areas and buildings from indigenous materials and designs (Memmott and Davidson, 2008). Memmott and Davidson (2008) argue that vernacular architecture should be analysed from local people’s vernacular architectural thought and practices because they have valid values and norms too. Holism exists through how these people create their houses and communities according to their minimal economic resources, but which, exemplify their cultural beliefs and practices regarding their pursuit of a good life (Memmott and Davidson, 2008). This study indicates that holism in architecture should examine other architectural traditions that show buildings as they are. Wholeness means acknowledging these various architectural practices and understanding their underlying socioeconomic and political conditions. Another study focuses on vernacular buildings and their difficult conditions. Kellett and Napier (1995) examine squatter settlements in developing countries. They note that these houses are substandard in quality of materials and facilities compared to formal architectural works, but they should also be analysed on how they affect architectural practices and their society. They assert the importance of studying vernacular architecture because of their effects on people, sentient beings, and the environment. For instance, many squatter houses are prone to fire (due to the use of combustible materials and how they are squeezed into small spaces) and their locations are also vulnerable to flooding, if near water systems, and other natural disasters, if situated near or on unstable lands, such as at the base of deforested hills and mountains. Holism indicates that these houses deserve further study through improving the safety of these houses. Without holism, architects may overlook them and not help vernacular architecture in enhancing the quality of living for their residents. Besides embracing all architectures, holism spurs the drive toward quality-life-raising designs. Hensel (2012) asserts that holism in architecture relies on developing new and interconnected concepts and approaches towards sustainability, which hinges on a performance-oriented architecture perspective. He explains that performance-oriented architecture highlights context-specificity and the urgency of engaging different spatial and time scales, compound dynamics, actors and many more, to create new criteria of sustainability in architecture. Schmidt (2008) underscores the importance of green buildings to promoting the health of users and balancing the needs of present and future generations. Holistic architecture is also sustainable architecture because it designs buildings that are part of the living environment and promotes the quality of living for all creatures in the environment (Schmidt, 2008). Holism in architecture means that architects apply holism in their architectural philosophy, while holism for architecture underlines how holism is a framework that may guide sustainable architecture. The goal of a good quality and sustainable life includes designing for positive health outcomes too. Sherman et al. (2005) learned from their study that health care environments must be designed to improve health outcomes too. Their focus is on child health, where their findings showed that the built environment has direct physical impacts on children through affecting levels of safety, toxins, and neighbourhood dimensions. In particular, these aspects of the physical environment impact children’s environmental satisfaction that further affects their physical, psychological, cognitive, and social wellbeing. These factors are nature, noise, crowding, spatial arrangement, art, lighting, temperature, and music (Sherman et al., 2005, p.214). This study supports the findings of Smith and Bugni (2006) which showed that architecture also renders symbolic experiences that affect human welfare. Elements of design have symbolic meanings to people that can shape their physical, emotional, cognitive, and psychological experiences (Smith and Bugni, 2006). Wahl (2007) also affirms the importance of design to health. His study shows that health is a product of the designed environment too. These studies underscore that holism in architecture goes beyond functionalism in terms of productive workplaces because it also integrates the promotion of people’s bodies, minds, and spirits too. Holism in Architecture: Effects on Other Sentient Beings and the Environment Research is scarce when searching for studies that empirically investigated holistic architecture’s effects on the welfare of other sentient beings, probably because of the anthropocentric view that nature’s main purpose is to meet humanity’s needs and wants (Sassi, 2006, p.5). Most of the time, designs only consider animal welfare when they involve zoos, farms, gardens, and theme parks or resorts that house animals, or have the main purpose of preserving them. This section asserts that holism in architecture also refers to holism that embraces human co-existence with animals, plants, and the environment (Wahl, 2007). Holistic architecture designs with sentient beings and the environment in mind, particularly, providing space for their growth and development, including establishing protections from human usurpation of their right to a good life (Murphy, 2005, p.15). For those who cannot understand why animals and the environment should even have the same intrinsic value as human beings, they could be persuaded to think that the latter have supreme essence to ecological balance and unity that are crucial to human development and survival (Sassi, 2006, p.6). If architects design buildings that damage forests or pollute seas (i.e. killing aquatic beings), they are not only harming the environment, but also their own welfare as human beings who need clean air, water, and land to live a long, healthy life (Sassi, 2006, p.6). Holism in architecture perseveres to include all sentient beings and ecological effects because it realises that humans must preserve the whole or else perish with its disintegration (Murphy, 2005, p.15). Practices of Holism in Architecture and Associated Fine and Applied Arts Fine arts and performance can illustrate the importance of holism as a principle and outcome to the welfare of all sentient beings and the environment. London (2006) argues that holistic education raises the quality of human thought and behaviours. It starts with a total framework of viewing the self as mind, body, and spirit and continues with teaching principles that nourish all of them as a whole. Mitamura (1989) describes holography as a medium to understanding wholeness. Holographic art can help people to visually appreciate the invisible centres and boundaries that interconnect every element in their environment, most especially, human beings and their environment (Mitamura, 1989). The practice of holism may begin with architectural education that teaches wholeness principles. Its courses should reinforce holism as an approach to design, so that students can understand the true connections of their courses to their holistic identities (London, 2006). Besides the role of education in promoting holism in architecture, London (2006) describes authentic art works and performances that stimulate a holistic understanding of the self. Artists use art to understand and express their identities, while their audiences understand the former’s and their own identities through their interactions with different art works and performances. An artist who works within a wholeness paradigm do not only benefit from the holistic process of his/her art by giving him/her a sense of unity with the holomovement, but also creates art works that share holistic principles and practices with fellow artists and audiences (London, 2006, p.13). Some examples are the poetry and dance schools from Indian, Philippine, and Zapotee cultures, among others, because they characterise the meaning of wholeness through their collectivistic values (London, 2006, p.14). Mitamura (1989) also offers holographic art that defies fragmentation and pushes audiences to see the interconnections of everything to one another. Holistic art raises the quality of human life by celebrating and promoting holism in real life. Holism in architecture also enhances health through encouraging better health values, attitudes, and practices through the arts and improved social dynamics. Senior and Marie (1998) agree that the arts can nourish the mind, body and soul. They talk about helping children express their artistic side to help them deal with different illnesses and to generally raise wellness through the arts. In other words, architecture that promotes artistic expressions may improve health values, attitudes, and practices (Senior and Marie, 1998). For example, instead of engaging in substance abuse, troubled teenagers can use art to express their anger or life dissatisfaction. Designing health care institutions and even neighbourhoods to have spaces for art and music can help alleviate psychological or emotional problems. Holism might help the healing process through improving social relations too. Some communities, for instance, are redesigning their neighbourhoods to improve and expand public spaces for interaction. They provide areas for rest and recreation, as well as social interactions, in order to reduce anxiety and to enhance oneness and camaraderie in their communities (Bennet, et al., 2012). Other communities are also improving safety and walkability, while reducing pollution and other environmental problems, to encourage physical activity and social interactions (Baur, Gómez and Tynon, 2013). Holism in architecture considers the social and health context of users. It seeks to contribute to an orderly spatial arrangement and overall impact that seeks to improve social and health conditions. In addition, neighbourhoods that are designed to improve social capital and other social resources can also have positive effects on the holistic growth of their residents. Caughy et al. (2006) noted from their study that children who live in neighbourhoods that have high social capital do better in school and exhibit lower problematic behaviours. Designing public housing that may encourage socialisation and positive social experiences can have helpful effects on children. The same goes for adolescents because Fauth, Roth and Brooks-Gunn (2007) learned that adolescents who have access to arts, sports, and civic clubs tend to be less depressed, less vulnerable to substance abuse, and have lower delinquency. Holistic designs should also consider the role of these arts and activity spaces to the welfare of the youth. In addition, Krause (2006) learned from his study that the elderly will also benefit from houses that promote socialisation. Holistic architecture responds to the socialisation needs of the elderly too. Wholeness entails responding to different age-level needs and concerns and addressing social, health, and economic disparities. It creates a sense of order for different age and socioeconomic groups. Wholeness, moreover, is not always about order, but also chaos. Arnheim (1996) offers an interesting take on chaos as part of wholeness. Citing examples of chaos in the arts, such as Henri Matisse’s Dance, he believes that chaos is part of the natural order of life and reality. He argues that people should not evade or undermine chaos, but appreciate how it is part of their wholeness, both inside and around them. The arts, especially those from artists who are considered “troubled” because of their mental or psychological illnesses, offer chaotic art works and performances. They provide architecture a beautiful influence, wherein they unmask the chaos inside wholeness and the need to appreciate how chaos brings reality to order eventually too (Arnheim, 1996, p.120). After discussing general examples, this paper proceeds to specific ones. Below is an example of a holistic design. Figure 1 refers to the interior and exterior of the College Building at Eishin Campus, Tokyo that Alexander designed. The interior refers to the inside of the Great Hall of the College Building. This design can be analysed through Bohm’s concept of wholeness. It has an implicate order that comes from Japanese cultural beliefs and practices in design and education, since this is an educational building. Wholeness comes from the interaction between explicate and implicate orders through how culture shaped the building’s Japanese cultural design that focuses on simplicity and openness of space. The interior of the Great Hall has an open space and a well-lighted atmosphere due to large windows. The design can also be analysed through some of Alexander’s properties. The selected properties are the following: (1) Levels of scale: The small centres are the inner wooden beams that support the larger centre of the Great Hall, for instance; (2) Strong centres come from the inner implicate order that combines these centres through interconnections; (3) Positive space can come from the centre of the roof that gathers its strength partially from the forces of other centres that are immediately near it, such as the wooden ceilings; and (4) Good shape is evident through the inner wooden beams and how their shape support each other. The strength of the centre relies on its shape, which in this case has curves, and how it shows that the shape, its boundary and the space surrounding it consist of strong centres. The centre is connected to other wooden beams and similar shapes. As a whole, the wooden designs are interconnected to create both balance and harmony inside and outside the building. Moreover, considering energy efficiency, this design is energy efficient because the high ceiling makes the room cool, while the windows provide natural sunlight. This building responds to wholeness based on Bohm’s and Alexander’s holism principles. Figure 1: College Building at Eishin Campus, Tokyo Source: Mehaffy and Salingaros (2011) Besides this building, another example comes from the designs of modular homes for disaster victims. Hinson and Norman (2007) describe the production and assembly of modular homes that are part of the “DESIGNhabitat 2” initiative. These homes are made of pre-fabricated structures for ease of construction. See Figure 2 for Built Components. These houses are holistic because of the consideration of the unique conditions of the end users. Their conditions are part of the implicate order. Chaos exists in this implicate order, and the response is fast and efficient housing. These users do not have resources to build houses as quickly as they need them. Modular housing is energy-efficient and quick to reproduce and assemble. It affirms an explicate order that generates positive affect for the users (Kraftl and Adey, 2008). Moreover, the design is flexible. With additional designs from users, it can accommodate livestock, which many people in provinces tend to have. Wholeness can be regained if people once again feel secure due to stable housing and livelihood. Figure 2: Built Components of DESIGNhabitat 2 Source: Hinson and Norman (2007, p.10) Wholeness can also be analysed using Alexander’s principles. Figure 3 shows the front view of the completed house. Echoes are present because of the sameness of angle, orientation, and systems of centres, from the repetition of modular structures. The void is the empty centre(s) inside them that users can fill up for their furniture and other needs. Simplicity and inner calm may show through the simplicity of the internal configuration of spaces and calmness that come from having a ready-made house. Not-separateness underscores that the inner spaces interlink to provide a comfortable, quick-to-make liveable space. The inner simplicity also matches the outer design’s simplicity. The effect is peace of mind that is urgently needed after disasters. This house is designed with wholeness in mind because of the consideration of the socioeconomic conditions and needs of end users. Its flexibility also affirms the role of the centre in creating liveable spaces for human beings and other sentient beings. Figure 3: Front View of Completed DESIGNhabitat 2 House Source: Hinson and Norman (2007, p.12) Conclusion This paper shows that holism is not an end goal, but it can reflect holistic end goals that may improve architecture’s effects on the health and well-being of humans, other sentient beings and the environment. Holism in architecture is an approach to design that promotes inclusivity of all sentient beings and the environment. Holism is for architecture because it affirms wholeness and unity that architecture can also represent. In practice, wholeness refers to studying different architectures and how they impact diverse living creatures, the ecology and society, as well as the manifestation of buildings and neighbourhoods that looks after people’s health welfare and social development. Holism also refers to architecture’s effects on economic and political conditions. Architecture may be seen as an apolitical practice, but its effects on people can have political implications through its impacts on the community’s social and political dynamics. Holism is also a process and in flux because people and their environments are constantly changing and evolving. Moreover, as vernacular architecture shows, architecture has socioeconomic underpinnings that impact holism as it is. Housing, as designed and made by the poor, shows how low-income groups partake in the holistic flow of life. In relation, holism in architecture should also influence holism as it should be, wherein it strives to raise people’s wellbeing, especially the poor and the marginalised. Hence, holism in and for architecture is an architectural philosophy that merges principles in sustainability, social equity, and cross-cultural adaptability in designing and redesigning the built environment for the welfare of all sentient beings and the environment, now and in the future. 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