Readings In Social Science - Essay Example

Readings In Social Science John Stuart Mills John Stuart Mills was born in 1806 and was the eldest son of an already notable author who penned History of British India. It would be safe to assume through Mills’ Autobiography, that his most influential teacher was his own father. His father would indeed guide him toward the writings of Plato and Socrates wherein Mills would then extract the ability to succinctly orate his own thoughts and writings through what he read from these authors, without leaving much to the alternative dogmatic conclusions of the day. Formative Influences “His System of Logic 1843 was an ambitious attempt to give an account not only of logic, as the title suggests, but of the methods of science and their applicability to social as well as purely natural phenomena.” (Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy). Throughout his early life it was evident that philosophers played a large background in his discipline unlike others who were religiously biased. Through adapting these works toward the social commentary of the day, we find that in the same article of work by The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy is that “Mill's defense of the view that we ought to pursue happiness because we do pursue happiness, has been the object of savage attack by, among others, F. H. Bradley in his Ethical Studies 1874 and G. E. Moore in Principia Ethica 1903.” This would be aptly served by the situation of today’s social policies in that it seems quite apparent in how his insight many years ago would have been a service to those governing today. “But others have argued that on this particular point, Mill was misinterpreted by his critics. His insistence that happiness was to be assessed not merely by quantity but by quality - the doctrine that a dissatisfied Socrates is not only better than a satisfied fool, but somehow happier, too - has puzzled generations of commentators” (Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy). Taking the above statement into consideration, it would be evident that the social system of governance that is clearly applicable today has been influence partly in what Mill parlayed in his writings. It is a mandate of the social reformists to make society economically grounded through necessity and not indulgence. Adding to the fears of the time and how America was starting to engage in over-indulgences brought on by the industrial revolution, “Mill feared that it was also a society that cared nothing for individual liberty.” (Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy). This thinking would lead to a lack of “civil liberties” as Mill quoted in his writings On Liberty written in 1859. Through the lack of civil liberties “Mill lays down "one very simple principle" to govern the use of coercion in society - and by coercion he means both legal penalties and the operation of public opinion” (Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy) and through this analogy Mill points out that society needs to follow the utilitarian viewpoint on self-discretion and self-denial. Utilitarianism and Its Impact Utilitarianism is defined by the Bentham ideology a "a moral theory according to which an action is right if and only if it conforms to the principle of utility.” (Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy) This basically means that an action is only correct in its definition if it relates to the consequences of that action. It is perceived that happiness of self applies to the welfare of self and utilitarian law implicates that happiness equates to the welfare of those best affected. The application of the word utilitarianism has been replaced by consequentialism by devotees of the movement. Mill’s Theories of Influence It is apparent early philosophers had a great deal of influence over Mill and his social rhetoric on his viewpoints about social reform, but, there are those who have been guided by Mill themselves which include such individuals as: John Rawls, Robert Nozick, Karl Popper, Ronald Dworkin, H.L.A. Hart, Peter Singer. One such individual, John Rawls, was such a profound philosopher with respect to being “focused on the question of stability wherein could a society ordered by the two principles of justice endure” (Wikipedia). This is in relation to utilitarianism with respect to equal civil liberties and Rawls unilaterally conceded that some aspects of utilitarianism would be at fault as it is too complacent in its own definition, Rawls further quantified civil justice liberties with two main guidelines: a) Each person has an equal claim to a fully adequate scheme of basic rights and liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme for all; and in this scheme the equal political liberties, and only those liberties, are to be guaranteed their fair value. b) Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: first they are to be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; and second they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society. (Fred Wilson) This would seem to have followed through the justice system to today wherein every person is afforded their decreed civil liberties and that any infraction on such would prove criminally contempt. Present day philosophers will definitely enjoy the basic freedoms that have come out of the work of such individuals as Mill and, later, Rawls as the distinctiveness of the social economics found in policies and governmental regulations plays the part of advocate and not opponent. Criticism of Works There have been many critics of Mill’s works with respect to the ability by Mill to theorize all elements of science, social and physical. One of the opponents of Mill was Whewell especially in Mill’s theory of Universal Causation. Universal Causation is explained as “successful in finding causes at the specific level and this provides grounds for accepting the generic claim, the law about laws, that for all events there are causes to be discovered.” (Fred Wilson). “Whewell argued that acceptance of scientific hypotheses depends first upon their capacity to explain observed phenomena and more specifically upon their capacity to explain phenomena in diverse areas (the "consilience of inductions"). (Fred Wilson) Although many of Mill’s works are conducive of understanding modern theorem and stability of practical social practices, they do not adhere to many of the commonalities found in society today. As reference to that, we find that many social applications of theories presented by Mill do not provide lateral conformity. Many social reformists who would naturally herald the inclusion of civil liberties as well as civil justices, society has changed in such a way that it is impossible to conform to social issues that would head social acceptance by all political parties. Mill delves into many aspects of the social, scientific and political climate and tends to view himself as morally right in that “Given the centrality of self development, Mill argues that liberty is the fundamental human right.” The sole end," he proposes,” for which mankind is warranted, individually or collectively... in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection" (On Liberty p. 223). This will enable each to seek his or her own best; it will liberate a diversity of interests to the benefit of the individual and of all; and it will nurture moral freedom and rationality. With the latter will come creativity and the means of social and intellectual progress.” (Fred Wilson). The many facets of Will shows that his work and convictions are mainly logically based, or perhaps biased. His ability to put forward a logical analogy or definition toward such interests proves that he may in fact be biased toward a spiritual examination. Having not been raised in a religious household, this may in fact be a detriment to his logical convictions as he is not as well-rounded in his writings. Critical Evaluation of Other Writers There were many opponents and allies of Mill’s writings with respect to his ability to review other philosopher’s works in an effort to ensure validity in his own convictions and assessments. It would appear that many other’s agree with and, for instance, “Mill, with de Tocqueville, stressed the importance of local government. He was highly critical of the chaotic forms of local administration then present in Britain, and his influence was effective after 1871 when the central government moved to bring about reforms.” (Fred Wilson) It was their common belief that the parliament was in fact not being led by the best professionals elected by the constituency and perhaps not being governed in the proper manner. With respect to his many writings on religious autonomy, Mill “showed no sympathy to any form of institutionalized religion: he failed to share Coleridge love for the established churches, and thought even less of Comte's proposals for a rigid and hierarchical institutional "religion of humanity." These forms of religion and religious practice all stifled individuality and personal development.” (Fred Wilson) This perhaps made Mill a target for labels as a heretic in so much as unconformity to the vast reaches of the Church of England. Conclusion One of the many important aspects of how Mill wrote was that his thoughts toward subjects were that of “the whole” (Wikipedia). This did not sit right with many philosophers of the day in that he was more of expressing things and thoughts logically and not so much with directness of those who thought with emotion. Mill was considered a classic liberalist in which his philosophy was based on “the Age of Reason, characterized by a belief in the perfection of the natural order and a belief that natural laws should govern society. Logically it was reasoned that if the natural order produces perfection, then society should operate freely without interference from government”. (Answers.com) This version of liberalism was further broken down into classical liberalism wherein it “focuses on the rights of individuals pertaining to conscience and lifestyle, including such issues as sexual freedom, religious freedom, cognitive freedom, and protection from government intrusion into private life.” (Answers.com) Mill himself wrote in his essay On Liberty, "The sole end for which mankind is warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant." (Answers.com) This shows his apathy toward government regulation of freedoms that Mill tagged as civil liberties. References Gert, Bernard. (2004). What is Philosophy? Dartmouth University Department of Philosophy. Retrieved February 7, 2006 from http://www.dartmouth.edu/~phil/whatis/gert.html Liberalism. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved February 07, 2006, from Answers.com Web site: http://www.answers.com/topic/liberalism Mills, John (n.d.). Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy. Ed: Thomas Mautner. Retrieved February 07, 2006 from http://www.utilitarianism.com/mills Wilson, Fred (2005) John Stuart Mill. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved February 7, 2006 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill/ Wikipedia contributors (2006). Negative liberty. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:39, February 7, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Negative_liberty&oldid=34647977. Wikipedia contributors (2006). Utilitarianism (book). Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:44, February 7, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Utilitarianism_(book)&oldid=38184296. Wikipedia contributors (2006). Rule Utilitarianism. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:46, February 7, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rule_Utilitarianism&oldid=33726279. Wikipedia contributors (2006). John Rawls. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:24, February 7, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&oldid=38551682 Read More