How Drama Can Be Used to Enhance the Development of Literacy - Literature review Example

How Drama Can Be used to Enhance the Development of Literacy Being literate in today’s contemporary society is crucial to one’s quality of life and survival. When children go to school, they are expected to become literate, meaning they learn how to read and write with enough comprehension. Such skills are gained through activities both prepared by teachers as well as initiated by the learners. Young learners must adequately develop the four aspects of language, namely reading, speaking, writing and listening (Cremin et al., 2006). It has been found that in the field of language and literacy, drama is very effective in enhancing such literacy skills. When drama is integrated in the curriculum, the students’ quality of related writing, particularly when it is written in-role becomes significantly better (Barrs and Cork, 2001; Safford et al., 2004; Grainger, 2004). This paper explores how effective Drama is in enhancing learners’ development of literacy through novel and enjoyable ways. It will focus more on multicultural learning of young children whose literacy is just emerging as well as second language learners who are just becoming literate in the English language. In many ways, several aspects of literacy development are similar for both groups. As young children begin to learn to read and write, second language learners are likewise beginning to learn how to understand, speak and even write in a language that is not native to them. The aspect of multicultural theme is also discussed because literacy development is strongly influenced by one’s culture (Blackledge, 2000) . Nowadays, learners are more likely to be in increasingly globalized settings such as in a classroom of multicultural students. With both groups, teachers should allow them to experience learning activities to engage their interest, attention and retention of the lessons. There are myriad ways of helping children develop their literacy skills and one that engages them in their learning is Drama. Most theatrical plays and dramatic productions are based on literature written by the most proficient writers. Immersing children in literature and ensuring their enjoyment in involving their creative and critical thinking skills may be a challenge for teachers. That is why there is a need to fashion activities that not only engages their interest but also challenge them. Getting into fascinating literature and being enthralled in the events that transpire in the story clearly activates the imaginations of readers and early literacy learners (Cook, 2000). I. Definition of Literacy Blackledge (2000) argues that literacy is not a set of individual skills but is a socialized phenomenon. It takes place within a learner’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) where he fills the gap between what the he already knows and what he is still to learn. Blackledge’s contention implies that ZPD is formed within interactions between the learner, his or her co-learners and the tools they use while being engaged in a common activity. Hence literacy learning is fostered in a social setting. Blackledge proposed two views on literacy, one that is individual and another that is cultural. The individual skill view suggests that literacy is a set of information-processing skills and can be developed through one’s own study pace. On the other hand, cultural practices model is influenced by learners’ present social context. Both individual and cultural views complement instead of contradict each one another. It implies that in a classroom where learners come from various backgrounds, literacy learning can also be a multicultural experience. Winston & Lin (2015) agree that the classroom is viewed as a venue where the “dominant culture and the voices it is intent on silencing; those from cultural minorities, be they related to race, class, gender or sexual orientation. Cultural borders, then, are there to be crossed, by providing marginalised voices with a platform from which they can democratically be heard” (p. 4). Various literacy learning strategies may be employed by teachers but what are greatly appreciated in terms of one’s social and cultural development are those that engage them in collaboration. Halliday (1978) argues that the social learning processes of a child whether it be about learning their language or about learning their culture are worth studying because a sociolinguistic perspective is essential in maintaining social order. Blackledge (2000) agrees and adds that literacy in itself, is a cultural achievement and its development is determined by the collaborative works learners engage in. Literacy development for young children may be parallelised to second language learning of English language learners. Both are in the emergent literacy stage. This means they are just beginning to discover a whole new world with the skills and concepts they are learning. This world is language, which may be the native language of some young children, but a second language for non-native English speakers. Emergent literacy theories are consistent with the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. It is based on the belief that literacy is actively constructed with the learners’ interaction with their environments and the people around them and these bring about learning (Piaget, 1959). Vygotsky (1962) contends that learners become literate when they converse and become involved in literacy acts with their peers and teachers. This interaction is called ‘scaffolding’ (Martin & Rose, ___) and happens when a wiser and more adept peer or teacher gently guides the learner through the necessary steps in literacy activities while relinquishing autonomy little by little to the learner until such time he can do in on his own. Teachers may design activities that can capture the interest of their learners and engage them in participation. One theme that they can follow is the incorporation of cultural concepts to target a multicultural group of young learners or for second language learners to be able to relate to the theme especially if the writer or the characters in the story presented are from their home culture. Teachers using the same lesson plan for different groups of learners from different cultures may be surprised to find differences in how the learners may receive the lessons and implement varying activities that may be rooted in their culture. An example is the study of Winston and Lin (2015) who studied the effects of using the traditional Chinese story, “The Water Ghost” as the base of the dramatic activities in the lessons of two groups of children, one group for Taiwanese primary-aged children, and the other group for British primary-aged children. Both groups received the same set of drama lessons. The lessons incorporate some Chinese beliefs as reflected in their folktales and universal themes such as friendship, reward for goodness, etc. that everyone can relate to are explored. Hence, the idea of ‘glocalisation’ (Winston & Lin, 2015) is implemented by studying local flavour of the folk tale as well as global themes that even people from various cultures can understand well from their own cultural context. The lessons for ‘The Water Ghost’, as well as for the other stories used in the dramatic curriculum, make use of the three literacies identified by Cummins (1994). These are functional, cultural and critical literacies. Functional literacy is the set of cognitive skills that enables individuals to interact socially and even for employment purposes. Cultural literacy refers to the need to experience cultural practices that are necessary in both social and cultural context. Critical literacy focuses on analyzing situations necessary for the development of the society. To apply this to a multicultural classroom or a class for second language learners of English, functional literacy is the collaborative brainstorming for practical solutions for the problems given by the teacher to the learners considering the given circumstances of the characters. It also extends to the learners’ real-life situational experiences and how they cope with similar problems. Cultural literacy is applying solutions or practices that are culturally-appropriate to whoever the problems are being solved for without offending any belief, tradition or cultural practice. It entails sensitivity to the feelings of the people from the culture/s involved. On a more widespread level, critical literacy involves studying societal conditions and situations and how the solutions to the problems posed are applicable. For example, in the story of the Water Ghost, the concept of suicide and the choice of allowing it or stopping it were to be discussed by the children according to what they believe in. During the discourse, they may realize that some points are more convincing than the others, and it takes their critical literacy to determine what the moral thing to do is culling from their own and their culture’s moral compass. II. Play and Literacy It is believed that play is an activity engaged in not only for enjoyment but also for learning. In terms of literacy, much of its development can come from indulging in one’s imagination and this can produce what is commonly known as fiction. Cook (2000) agrees that fictional narratives have been created with language that stimulates the imagination, false beliefs and hallucinations, wishful thinking, lies and hypothetical thinking rather than focusing on what is. Klinger (1971) suggested that children’s make believe is transmitted into fantasy as they enter adulthood. Much of bestselling fiction written by adults is a product of active, vivid imaginations which were allowed to soar when they were children. Now going full circle, it is these authors’ turn to stimulate others’ imaginations with their work especially when they incorporate their creative ideas in writing fiction intended for children, supplemented by artistic illustrations to further fuel the imaginations of children. Cook (2000) provides two explanations why learners need fiction in their literacy development. One is a service explanation focused on the functional and educational uses of language which are as aids for language acquisition, social education and the establishment of group solidarity. Fiction enables the audience to engage in the fictional narrative as well as gain vocabulary words. Socially, it helps the audience in managing their daily situations as they relate to the characters’ situations in the narrative. Fiction also creates a relationship between the storyteller and the audience which can produce productive outcomes in their social interactions (Cook, 2000). The creative explanation for the need for fiction is focused on unrealistic events from fiction which may influence learners’ better understanding of reality. Learners enjoy its more illusionary images or characters and such symbolisms can help them remember details and lessons which are also helpful in having a grasp of reality. Examples are works by Russian historian and children’s writer, Korney Ivanovich Chukovsky mentioned in Cook (2000) as he suggests that “the very bizarreness of events in children’s stories may enable them to gain a greater grip on reality” (p. 44). This is philosophy may also be advocated by American writer and illustrator, Theodor Seuss Geisels of the Dr. Seuss fame whose popular children’s books feature strange but unforgettable characters and invented words that children delight in such as ‘Cat in the Hat’ or “How the Grinch stole Christmas”. Cook (2000) asserts that Chukovsky’s and Geisel’s work link the function of fiction with its playful manipulation of words. In sum, Cook (2000) advocates that the function of play is to generate imaginary words, situations, characters and events to create a meaning. During imaginative play, fiction is created to construct a reality to a form of abstract structure. This then allows the audience to create a logical meaning that can lead to literacy development, rather than directly giving the meaning which is considered “spoon-feeding” of ideas, which is not recommendable if one is to encourage the development of creative and critical thinkers. This is why active participation is needed in dealing with fiction. One effective strategy in engaging learners in fiction that leads to literacy is the use of a drama curriculum, as employed in the aforementioned lessons in the story “The Water Ghost”. Drama not only stimulates individual imagination, but rather a collective imagination where members can bring to life various aspects of the story in either non-verbal or verbal ways. The drama curriculum provides opportunities to the learners to be writers, actors, and part of the audience. It stimulates real learning through their experiences. Additionally, they have to be able shift from one task to another that makes them reflective and active, which are essential in literacy development (Baldwin & John, 2012). Roskos & Christie (2007) agree that essential literacy skills like print concepts and alphabet knowledge may be developed with literacy-enriched dramatic play, games, reading of stories, dictation of language experiences and other “fun” activities descriptive of play. They have also advocated for ‘blended’ literacy programs featuring guided and child-led play opportunities directly connected with the academic curriculum, emergent literacy strategies and short lessons with focused and direct instruction (Roskos et al., 2010). For example, in the instruction-oriented approach, pretend play activities are part of the teachers’ instruction after reading a story as a way to check comprehension (Pellegrini, 1984). The Thematic Fantasy Paradigm (TFP) developed by Saltz & Johnson (1974) follows this format with the teacher asking the students to role-play the story she just told them. TFP helps children connect the different events in the story into a logical sequence. Toys may also be used to prompt story-telling. They are carefully laid out by the teacher and ask children to narrate a story with it (Ilgaz & Aksu-Koc (2005). Another strategy is the environment-oriented approach wherein teachers design a pretend play environment equipped with materials children have access to as well as social resources. It is a print-rich play environment filled with children’s books, writing materials, bookmaking supplies, etc. that encourage children to engage in creating stories, books and indulge in the world of words (Roskos et al., 2010). III. The Role of Drama in Literacy Development As much as children enjoy listening to stories, they also love re-creating the story through role-playing. This is one educational form of drama they can experience in their early learning journey. Nicholson (2000) defines drama as a way to present ideas, thoughts and other forms of literacy in a creative manner such as acting, movement, visual images, sound and music. She argues that drama literacy does not only focus on reading and writing but also covers skills necessary to perform such tasks, hence it is not a passive approach. Drama engages learners both as active participants and as part of the audience who need to actively interpret what they witness (Nicholson, 2000). Neelands (2004) has thoroughly explained how drama figures in literacy and language development. He has emphasised the significance of dramatic literature in English studies as well as to allow learners to benefit and enjoy from the writers’ fruits of their labour by giving them ‘pleasure’ and ‘challenge’ as well as have “access to the performance codes and histories of the literary theatre” (Neelands, 2004, p. 31). Learners should be able to completely understand the literature by turning it upside-down as well as inside-out with various activities, carefully planned by their teacher or even planned it with the learners themselves. Upon their full comprehension of the plot, themes, character analysis, quotes, etc., they become ready to reconstruct the story with their dramatic performance. The readings by Halliday (1978) and Neelands (2004) have several overlapping concepts and definitions. Neelands (2004) terms the form of communication used in specific social circumstances as ‘register’ which has three elements, namely discourse, which covers the content of the discussion in conversations; tenor or the kind of relationship shared by people that determines their communication styles or patterns; and mode or the form/genre that the communication is used, whether it is formal, casual or familial. This calls for sensitivity to others and care not to offend them in any way. Halliday (1978) defined register as “the configuration of semantic resources that the member of a culture typically associates with a situation type. It is the meaning potential that is accessible in a given social context.” (p. 111). Whereas Halliday talks about language as a social semiotic, Neelands applies Halliday’s terms in drama curriculum. Both touch on sociolinguistic, socio-cultural and socio-political implications of language. Halliday (1978) defines ‘text’ as ‘what is meant’ or actualized meaning potential. To that, Neelands argues that communicating the text is making private meanings public. However success in this communication lies more on the shared set of linguistic resources available within the communicating group. Both speaker and listener need to be ‘on the same page’ or both understand the true meaning of the text. Halliday (1978) speaks of the situation, which is the environment wherein the text becomes understood. Neelands (2004) contends that drama is ‘situational’ and the same text can differ in meaning in different situations. In drama, people actively use their imagination to adapt to the situation called for. Apart from language, they also use the space around them, gestures and props to define both the physical and social elements of the situation (Neelands, 2004). For example, an old hermit living in a cave may be portrayed by an individual as a hunched character with a cane to help him walk very slowly, and physically, such individual is dressed as someone rugged with dishevelled and long hair and beard due to not bathing for a long period of time. In terms of language, the ‘hermit’ can speak in a lower tone of voice, slowly and like a wise old man dispensing advice to others. While the individual is playing the role, he acts like a hermit throughout even when interacting with others. Reality that he is actually a young boy or man who is lives very differently from the hermit role he is portraying becomes suspended. While in the role, he gets to learn much about the experiences of a hermit, which then becomes a personal resource that can help him grow in knowledge and an additional information on how to use language. This is consistent with Gangi’s (1998) idea of drama literacy which “allows a kind of thinking that is reflective, interpretative and abstract, one which promotes questioning (p. 53). Nicholson (2000) identified two approaches in drama. Firstly, it focuses on visual presentation of the text or meaning of a register. Secondly, elements of drama like voice projection movement, facial expression, etc. are used appropriately to further present the drama. Teachers should encourage their students to produce drama that is relatable to them and their culture and ensure that they collaborate in sharing ideas and opinions. As an example, the story of the ‘The Water Ghost’ shall be analysed for this paper and how the lessons prepared for it in the workshops were delivered to learners of varied cultural backgrounds. The dramatic story as told to the children during the lesson is deliberately designed to have openings where children can come in to reflect, engage in discourses and improvise the story to suit their beliefs and preferences. In the case of the Water Ghost story, it was interesting to compare how children from Taiwan and UK respond to the prepared questions and activities in relation to their cultures and value systems (Winston & Lin, 2015). In the first lesson, the story is presented and then a clapping game is introduced as a transition activity which became a signal for the activities to begin for the session. Dramatic games such as walking through space are used to group children for certain activities. Then a motivating question is introduced for the groups to discuss about and then they create an image to express the group’s answer to the question. In the first lesson, groups/pairs were asked to discuss why the Water Ghost was miserable and activities they do with their friends to stir up interest in the story’s plot and make it relatable to their own situations. At the end of the session, the children are led to think about friendship, that of the characters in the story as well as their own friendships in their lives. The teacher further whets their appetite for the dramatic lessons to come by creating expectations for the next lessons. This is a perfect example of Cummin’s (1994) ‘functional literacy’ wherein the learners discuss an event or issue in the literature and then relates it to their own situations. This way, what they learn from the story becomes functional to them and can be drawn from in practical circumstances when they need guidance on what to do in a similar situation. Winston and Lin (2015) report that in both cultures, the children incorporated their cultures in the performance of the tasks asked for. This shows that they have achieved a certain level of ‘cultural literacy’ (Cummins, 1994) and refer to it when they were provided opportunities to share their own ideas. For example, when asked what activities they thought the characters Chang and Shui Gui do as friends, Taiwanese children mentioned playing a game of mah jong while some UK boys mentioned drinking happily in a pub. Regarding the food they shared, some Taiwanese children provided a wide variety, some known to UK children like steak, fried chicken, etc., and some known only to them such as “shrimp balls, lion’s head (stewed meatballs), mun-poh soup and hot pot with fried fish heads” (p. 9). On the other hand, the English children had their own offerings which included Yorkshire pudding, which is unrecognizable to Taiwanese children. Winston and Lin (2015) commented that the responses of the children were spontaneous, as they were enabled as well as limited by the cultural resources they have been exposed to. This is also reflected in the artistic badges they made for the Water Ghost which incorporated some elements from their own culture that are absent in the other’s. One example is a Taiwanese girl’s drawing of a female ghost resembling a character from the Japanese horror movies that were popular at that time. The English children on the other hand were inspired by heraldic badges they see in school uniforms in their country. As the lessons progress, the discourses go much deeper to engage the children’s critical and creative thinking, drawing from their own personal beliefs, moral and ethical stands. They discuss more deeply about friendships and how these survive difficult challenges, the concept of suicide, justice, rewards and punishments and many other concepts that may not be learned and ingrained within the students if simply taught through lectures and written tests/ essays. The lessons also require the children to write a lot about their insights related to the discussions about the story. The drama curriculum allows children to feel the roles enabling them to write better and more accurately due to the experiences they’ve gained. It requires deep engagement of students to their roles and Cremlin (2006) defined this moment as “seizing the moment to write” (mentioned in Baldwin & John, 2012, p. 15). Cultural literacy also comes to surface in their own writings, and it is evidence that their culture is ingrained in them. The drama lessons included several ‘improvisations’ or activities wherein the children are expected to use their own words in expressing their ideas regarding some lines the characters might say with regards to some issues in the story. Teachers may add twists or other complications to expand the children’s reasoning skills as they justify some acts they propose (such as why they should or should not allow the villager to push through with his suicide attempt). Here, Neelands’ (2004) concept of ‘register’ applies wherein the children are ensured that they are attuned with the specific discourse they are improvising and being consistent with the roles of the characters, or the tasks they need to perform. This means they need to retain the tenor between the characters in dialogues or change it if the task is to explore shifts in the relationships between the two. It follows that the pattern and mode of communication are also adjusted to the role they are playing and the tenor of the characters’ relationships. Throughout the process, the core of children’s thinking and behaviours reflect how they process what is good or bad. Winston & Lin (2015) call it finding evidence in children’s moral thinking which is challenging to them. With improvisation exercises, teachers are encouraged to use situations or scenarios relatable to their students and can apply to their own lives (O’Malley and Pierce, 1996). Reflections on the Practical Workshop As it is true with younger learners in multicultural settings, second language learners also benefit from improvised dialogues introduced by drama lessons because drama balances their cognitive and affective competencies for communication. It has been suggested that instinctive responding to emotional situations stimulates “learner creativity, communal awareness and personal growth” (DiNapoli, 2009, p. 98). During the dialogue, language learners exchange meaning in a context that includes subjective and emotional factors which are known to enhance learning. Di Pietro (1987) contends that in a student’s interpretation of his role, his individualism as a second language speaker is honed and this is further enhanced by “thinking dramatically about discourse” (p.6). This implies that the more relevant the dialogue is to the student, the more personal his experience becomes hence, the more affect is involved in his part. Such connection fusing his affective and cognitive functions is critical to the mastery of the second language (Hegman, 1990). DiNapoli (2009) asserts that the involvement of the affective component and the establishment of an emphatic link between the student and the dramatic text engage right-brain stimulation to complement left-brain processes in learning. It then becomes a more holistic process which is significantly more effective than mere attention to grammatical structures, language function and conventional discourse associated with only left-brain functions. With the Water Ghost story, the children were encouraged to develop empathy for the characters so they can better understand the roles they play as well as justify the lines they deliver in dramatic presentations. Peregoy and Boyle (2008) suggest that it is highly motivating for students to act out stories and events as a way for them to help in processing and sharing information. It is also a way to introduce them to more sophisticated ways of thinking on their feet (Wright et al., 2007). In addition, drama reduces anxiety and enhanced language acquisition skills especially for second language learners (Richard-Amato, 1988). Because young children are naturally explorative and have less inhibitions than their older counterparts, they are more open to any kind of drama activity (Royka, 2002). This is the reason why early childhood education teachers feel more empowered to use games, pretend play and other dramatic activities in their classes. Similarly, the integration of drama and movement strategies can be effective in helping language learners to be more proficient in their tasks. Rieg & Paquette (2009) recommend the integration of drama and movement in the daily curriculum because not only do children enjoy it, but numerous learning experiences transpire for them (Cahuhan, 2000; Royka, 2002). Sun (2003) enumerate the skills the children can acquire from kinesthetic activities such as as follows: decoding skills, fluency, vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, discourse knowledge and meta-cognitive thinking. These are on top of learning more basic developmental skills of reading, writing, gross and fine motor coordination. In addition, creative expression and thinking, social interaction, problem solving, cooperative play, rhythm and rhyming skills can be enhanced (Rieg & Paquette, 2009, p. 14). In the Water Ghost workshop, several games and movement activities such as ‘walking through space’ to give them a feel of being a Water Ghost, playing ‘tag’, as a designated Water Ghost chases a potential victim, and playing the ‘huggy’ game where they get into character and play out a potential scene in a play, remembering what the characters they are playing have gone through and what they will or won’t do in certain situations. Specific Drama Strategies I Intend to Use in My Practice This exercise on studying the role of drama in enhancing literacy development has made me realize that there is so much more to drama than role-playing or letting children re-enact a story selected from a variety of rich literature. Although there is already much learning from the mere dramatization of a story, I can still maximize the learning of my students such as engaging them in critical discourse, reflecting on their own morality, drawing from their own culture and creating their own spin on the literature they have been presented with. Nicholson (2000) provided several suggestions in dramatization such as dividing the class into groups such as groups for play production, set design, costumes, technicians, directors, and actors. However the whole class were in involved in writing the script. She reported that in her own experience, after writing, the students were creative enough to utilize the use of sound and or music to enhance the dramatization. Hence, the activity allowed the students to create speculation, reflect to some questions, and interpret some meanings, ideas, and emotions as well as incorporate aesthetic components in the drama. Before I can even launch my students to be playwrights, I need to ensure that they have acquired a rich vocabulary because it is an important aspect of dramatic experiences. It will also enhance their comprehension of literature. What I intend to do is to follow Sun’s (2003) recommendation of reading and writing stories containing new vocabulary words and have the children act out the meanings of the words. This is consistent with Alber & Foil’s (2003) recommendation of making events more memorable for children when they learn new words such as making them physically move as they think of its meaning or use their bodies when spelling the words. The practical workshops also introduced me to strategies I can choose to use in my own teaching practice with Drama. Improvisation and engagement in dialogues are interesting activities I can introduce with my own students, as I learned how much learning and skills they can develop from it. Incorporating art and games related to the story increases the enjoyment and engagement of the students ensuring the retention of their attention, interest and learning. References Alber, S.R., & Foil,C.R. (2003). Drama activities that promote and extend your students vocabulary proficiency. Intervention in School & Clinic, 39(1), 22-29. Baldwin, P. & John, R. (2012) Inspiring writing through drama: creative approaches to teaching ages 7-16. 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