Sports Education - Literature review Example

Sports Education Introduction The significance of sport education (SE) has been accepted as an important platform for integrating sports instructionwith physical education (PE). It has been found that aspiring teachers get into this field mostly because of their previous affiliations with or interest in sports, and PE is a valid outcome of their expectations. Siedentop has defined sport education as a tool for educating students in the manner so that they can become competent players with literal knowledge about sports (Hastie et al., 2011, pp.125,129). He has further modified SE in three ways – 1) every student can participate by forming small teams, 2) minor rules of games are suited to match the skill level of each player, and 3) students participating not only as players but also as coaches, trainers, managers etc (Hastie, 2012, p.2). The idea is to develop competent and enthusiastic players. The sport education model developed by Siedentop, Mand and Taggart provides physical educator with a more authentic approach to teaching sport. Sports education has been designed to help students appreciate sport and accept both high and low of competition. Literature review In the article “The influence of student status on student interactions and experiences during a sport education unit” Sheri J. Brock, Inez Rovegno and Kimberley L. Oliver have studied the mutual interactions between students belonging to different groups during a SE course, and the effect of a student’s status on such interactions. For this purpose the authors selected five boys and five girls from a SE class with modified soccer as course. The methodology was based on questionnaire, video observations and interviews of both students and the PE teacher. It was found that status of students which is characterized by their economic background, attractiveness, personality and level of participation in sports has impact on mutual interaction. Based on status it is decided whose opinions will be counted and who will get more playing time during a PE course. Considering the fact that motivation plays a key role in the performance level of students, Tristan L. Wallhead and Nikou Ntoumanis (2004) in their article “Effects of a Sport Education Intervention on Students’ Motivational Responses in Physical Education” have investigated the impact of SE intervention program on students’ motivation within the school context. The authors assigned 51 high school boys from low to middle income families into 2 groups of 25 and 26 boys. The first group received 60-min SE lessons while the second group traditional method of sport-based teaching. From each group, enjoyment level and motivational level among other elements were assessed. It is seen that only the first group exhibited increased level of enjoyment and perceived effort from pre- to postintervention. However, the same is not true for perceived competence. Moreover, in the second group which is the comparison group none of the variables exhibited major alterations. The traditional form of PE fails to create consistency with community sport which means students lack the required experience when they join community sports. Brunton (2003) in “Changing hierarchies of power in physical education using sport education” has investigated whether SE can shift the power from teachers to students so that the latter can take responsibilities for learning outcomes. The study was conducted for ten weeks on two badminton groups each having 24 pupils between 14-15 years. Observations were based on individual and group interviews. Results have shown that SE encourages power shift from teachers to pupils with the latter playing the role of coach, captain or team manager. Although teachers will be needed as authoritative figure the power shift is necessary for positive outcome which is not encouraged in traditional teaching method. Unlike the traditional features, Siedentop’s SE model which maintains group formation throughout seasons encourages team spirit, feeling of identity and social skills. Ann MacPhail, David Kirk and Gary Kinchin (2004) in “Sport Education: promoting team affiliation through physical education” have studied a 16-week SE unit with 70 year-5 students and the impact of participation in continuing groups on team affiliation. Two invasion games like basketball and netball were played which required team skills and communication between the players. Scores could be earned if ball can be shot in the net without crossing shooting line. Observation was made on how well the team members made decision based on team communication. Interviews were conducted on individual students and teams. It was concluded that students were motivated when given the chance to become member of teams. Also, students developed team loyalty so strong that despite difficulties in a particular team they preferred not to change teams. They learnt the virtues of maintaining positive relations between team members. Due to growing importance of motivation as an aspect of PE, Dana Perlman (2010) in “Change in Affect and Needs Satisfaction for Amotivated Students within the Sport Education Model” has studied the impact of SE model on the satisfaction level of amotivated students which means students who are reluctant to participate in any sports. Participant students included 624 male and 552 female Year 9-12 students. The two-year long study had PE classes 3 to 4 times each week under the tutelage of a PE teacher. They were provided opportunity to play invasion games requiring skill-drill approach. Results showed that amotivated students under SE model displayed greater level of satisfaction and enjoyment than those who were taught by the traditional approach. Studies have shown that how teaching physical education has been taken up as career by women and others out of enthusiasm and motivation. In the article “Stereotypes and Personal Beliefs about Women Physical Education Teachers” by Harris and Griffin (1997) has shown that still a low status has been given to women taking up this profession of physical education and that stereotyping physical education as a men’s profession is in practice. To increase women’s enthusiasm in sports gender diversity has to be increased in this profession. 196 individuals between 20 to 68 years have been surveyed in order to assess beliefs on women physical education. A three page anonymous questionnaire was given. Based on analysis done it was found out that respondents have stereotyped the women physical educators as more interested in sports, less intelligent, more aggressive, less feminine , less likely to have children. Affirmative policies should be taken up to encourage girls and women to take up this profession. Monica Stanescu et al. (2011) in article “Perception Of Students In Physical Education And Sports Field On The Teaching Career” has studied the perception of students who are interested in taking teaching profession in physical education as their career and has identified their motivational factors for the choice. The research was conducted on 108 UNEFS students in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd years of study who attain courses in Department of Teaching Staff Training. Questionnaires on qualities required in this profession, job preferences after graduating , advantages and disadvantages of this profession. It was concluded that patience was frequently cited quality. The motivation for taking up this career was cited as love for sports (72.2%),love to teach the others (57.4%), pleasure to work with kids (51.9%), an easy workschedule (26.9%), professional stability (25%), making a dream come true (16.7%). It was concluded that internal motivation is dominant in teaching career. Jinhee Kim, Dawn Penney and Mihye Cho (2006) in “‘Not business as usual’: Sport Education pedagogy in practice” studied a SE project in Korea. The purpose was to learn the factors that support teachers’ role in SE. Moreover, this study explored the strategies that teachers apply to motivate students within the learning parameters, and also the challenges that teachers face during a SE course and how they tackle such challenges. Study was conducted on the SE project in Korea that had elementary, middle and high schools along with a teacher education institution. The project included professional development workshops to facilitate new strategies in PE. The study showed that the project teachers made significant progress with regard to their roles and relationships. Also, they developed increased awareness of challenges and the manner in which to tackle the challenges. The traditional approach of SE includes three phases in which players are trained, then engaged in warm-up sessions and finally they are given the scope to play games. In this approach, game participation depends on skills acquired in the first two phases. But still there is a need to build comprehensive physical education program to motivate students with visual and hearing impairments to take up physical education. In the article “ Physical Education and Sports for People with Visual Impairments and Deafblindness: Foundations of Instruction”, Leader (2013) has explained about the false notion that people with visual and hearing impairments cannot be successful in sports. The author has discussed that modification is vital for inclusion of such people in sports. The Acces Sports model is introduced as a method to determine adaptations to sports courts, modifications of equipment, alterations for the rules of games, and the way in which personnel can be of assistance for integration. The author has suggested many strategies like appropriate programming in physical education during elementary school days and instruction in specific skills like jumping, throwing should be given to them. To carry out lifelong sports and physical activity the concept of leisure sports has been introduced. Qingshan Sun (2013) in his paper “Study on Introduction of Leisure Sports into Physical Education in Universities” has discussed about the necessity of introducing leisure sports in universities. Leisure sports as defined by Liu Yimin is a kind of body activity which helps people in using their leisure time in a constructive way for the aim of body building, entertatinment and recreation. Studies have shown leisure sports in universities enhance the student’s basic activity and helps in overall psychological and psychological development. It helps to enhance a student’s social adaption capacity and innovative capacity. The traditional sports have laid much emphasis on competitive sports and not on leisure sports. It is concluded that scientific special lectures on sports, reform in sports curriculum, cultivation of leisure sports teachers and strengthening the management of leisure sorts is required to implement leisure sports effectively. PE is concerned with ability of students to participate bodily in sports which especially in case of boys means engaging in physical activities beyond school. The purpose of the article “Study on Countermeasures for Developing Sunshine Sports in Regular Institutions of Higher Learning” by Xuxia Yao is to study the development of “sunshine sports” in 15 regular institutions of Tianjin. Fund shortage is one of the major factor which restraints the development of sunshine sports in Tianjin and university students lags behind the required one hour for sports every day. For the study sports teachers and leaders of 15 regular institutions has been interviewed. Methods used were expert interview, questionnaire survey and mathematical statistics. Among the multiple analyses done, one was that sufficient teachers were not there for developing sunshine sports. 80% schools were not sufficient in providing teachers and staffs. Sufficient apparatus and occasions were missing in 73% of schools and resolving such problems can increase the interest and time of students in sports. SE model is developed along the authenticity of sport in order to prepare students to gain sport experience in cultural context. Gary D. Kinchin, Ann MacPhail and Deirdre Ni Chroinin (2009) in their article “Pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of a culminating festival within a sport education season in Irish primary schools” have studied the attitude of students in the context of inter-school festival that is included in SE curriculum. As methodology, experiences of eight primary school teachers and 33 teams of pupils across eight classes were observed. It was compulsory for all the participants to arrive at a festival held during the SC course. It was observed that pupils were both excited and apprehensive during the pre-festival phase since they were not sure how they would perform during the festival. During the festival they reported on how their teams were performing and also mentioned about what they were enjoying in the festival. After the festival, they expressed positive feelings regarding their festival experience. The teachers confirmed that festivals play an important role in developing and sustaining students’ interest in their teams’ performance. Motivation is a pushing factor for astudents to perform their best. Nikos Ntoumanis(2001) in his article “A self-determination approach to the understanding of motivation in physical education” has tested a sequence of motivational process which was proposed by Vallerand(1997). Vallerand proposed that the influence of social factors on the different types of motivation is exerted through the satisfaction of three psychological needs which are needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Participants in this study were 428 British students ( 218 females, 206 males, 4 did not specify their gender) aged between 14-16 years from Northwest England. Questionnaires were used to measure choice of tasks (social factors), cooperative learning, perceived competence, autonomy, intrinsic motivation, external regulation, amotivation, boredom, effort and future intention to exercise. A SEM analysis has shown that perceived competence and intrinsic motivation in an individual is required in compulsory PE. In the article “The Motivating Role of Positive Feedback in Sport and Physical Education: Evidence for a Motivational Model” by Mouratidis et al investigated the motivating role of positive feedback on participants wellbeing, performance and intention to participate. An experimental study has been conducted on 117 male and 111 female Greek middle school students participating in physical education. The experiment took place during PE lessons at school. The experimental manipulation was conducted on an individual basis, in private, and in a specially designated area of the schoolyard. Valid physical shuttle run task was given which did not require skills or expertise. By multivariate analysis it was concluded that competence satisfaction and autonomous motivation has served as an important variable in positive feedback and future time participant intentions. Positive feedback builds up motivation for participants. Traditionally, it has been seen that teachers adopt pedagogical techniques that fail to boost students’ motivations. Dana Perlman (2012) in “The influence of the Sport Education Model on developing autonomous instruction” has attempted to provide intervention that will create a motivational ambiance for students on the behalf of SE teachers. As methodology, instruction data were collected from 50 PE teachers based on which teacher-student interactions were divided into fifteen categories. In the four-week study, students’ idea of self support and individual motivation was assessed through questionnaires. The teachers were revealed to be providing high level of self supportive statements while the SE students reported autonomous support ideas in the second and third phases of SE model. SE model allows teachers to adopt a more positive pedagogical approach that develop autonomous behaviors in students. The Russian PE is divided into three parts – “introductory part” focuses on warm-up activities like running and marching, “main part” focuses on skill development activities with time allotted for playing games while the “conclusory part” assesses the overall learning of students in the previous parts. Such a format does not allow individual students to participate in making decisions. Peter A. Hastie and Oleg A. Sinelnikov (2006) in their article “Russian students’ participation in and perceptions of a season of Sport Education” has explored students’ participation in Russian PE and their perceived experiences. As methodology, 37 students were selected from two classes for 18-lesson seasons in which they were mainly engaged in motor tasks. They were also allowed to play the roles of coaches. In the interview session, it was revealed that the students enjoyed the lessons. They also showed positive response towards students as coaches which encouraged team affiliation within the students. They also expressed belief that they gained significant skill and knowledge of basketball which was used as the teaching unit in this study. Age and Gender is a determining factor that shapes “perceived athletic competence and PE enjoyment”. Hui Fang-Yang (2013) in his article “Study on the Sport Enjoyment and Learning Satisfaction of Unicycle Activity Participants” has tried to understand the relation between basic variables and sports enjoyment and learning satisfaction of unicycle participates. The basic variables are gender and grade level of the participants. For this study purposive sampling was used. Children belonging to third to sixth grade from elementary schools in Chiayi country were selected. 170 questionnaires were distributed and 155 valid questionnaires were received, which means a valid response rate of 91%. Sports enjoyment scale by Chang and Chen and learning satisfaction scale by Chen has been used for measurement in this study. After statistical analysis it was concluded that there was no significance with gender on sports enjoyment and perceived satisfaction. Most school children were able to reach satisfaction and fun during unicycle sports activity. The average score for sports enjoyment reflects sports enjoyment increases with age. In order to motivate young PE students to participate in sport activities, a strong contributory factor is opportunity for fun and enjoyment. Ann MacPhail et al. (2008) in “Children’s experiences of fun and enjoyment during a season of sport education” have examined SE experiences of students with regard to fun and enjoyment. The purpose was to understand the influences of winning competitions and team membership on fun and enjoyment. Interviews were conducted on and questionnaires were distributed to 76 fifth year students who were participants of 6-week SE season. The involved teachers were without experience in SE teaching but supported PE classes in schools. Results showed that students found SE more enjoyable than PE and described the former as “different” and “more fun”. Team membership and sense of belonging were considered as enjoyment contributory factors. Teachers in their interviews claimed that social skills are developed by SE which in turns instill team spirit in the students. In “A Sport Education Curriculum Model for a Collegiate Physical Activity Course” the authors Gregg Bennett & Peter Hastie has examined the perception of students of a softball class trained under six key principle of SEM and have compared this with previous physical education activity which the student has taken in past. For this 40 students (27 male & 13 female) has been enrolled for softball class and over 10 week time the class met twice a week for 90 minutes and they were trained on the basis of six principles. Team selection, lectures and drills on the methodology of playing softball, introduction of modified games after assessing of individual skills were done. Now student’s response on this whole training session was collected via student logs, questionnaire, and instructor’s record of training session. It was concluded that the students enjoyed playing in team and 95 % attendance was recorded in class. They were attracted to the competition being formalized. The students reported that this training session is much better than their previous physical activity classes. In “Transformational Teaching and Child Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation, and Engagement in Elementary School Physical Education” the authors A. Justine Wilson et al. (2012) have explored the utility of transformational teaching within the framework of elementary school PE in the context of self-determined motivation and engagement behaviors of students. The article also examined whether the psychological needs of students influence the relationship between transformational teaching and self-determined motivation. In the middle of school year, factors like transformational teaching, self-determined motivation, psychological needs satisfaction and PE engagement of 577 students were surveryed. Two months later the same factors were surveyed on 533 students. The participants were all from elementary schools. It was concluded that transformational teaching is related to self-determined motivation of a child depending on psychological satisfaction level of students like “needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness” (p.12). Further it was found that level of psychological satisfaction determines engagement level in PE although it is also influenced by how students perceive teachers’ attitudes. For researchers, children as subject of study in still at nascent stage. More than their verbal representations visual data seem to be reliable. Ann MacPhail and Gary Kinchin (2004) in article “The use of drawings as an evaluative tool: students’ experiences of Sport Education” have studied how drawings made by students can be studied to understand their perception of SE in schools. As methodology, drawings were collected from 46 students between the age of 9 and 10. These students had just completed a 16-week SE season. Comparisons were made between the data collected from these drawing with broad conclusions made based on ongoing interviews. Children tend to express their experiences through the drawings they make. It was seen that the drawings collected for this study depicted children’s perception of SE experience in different ways; however one common theme was ‘fun’. Some drawing depicted ‘team allegiance’ as theme which was concluded as students favoring team formations. Competition spirit was also depicted as a positive factor in some drawings. Fair play behavior which is associated only with PE and sports can be developed in students if teachers include social skills lessons in the PE curriculum. Based on rugby sport, Carla Vidoni and Philip Ward (2009) in “Effects of Fair Play Instruction on student social skills during a middle school Sport Education unit” have studied the impacts of Fair Play Instruction on middle school PE classes. As methodology, seven middle school students from grade 8 had been selected for observation. They were observed for 40 minutes in each lesson which numbered 18. Data was based on the positive and negative behaviors of students who actively participated in the lessons. Results showed that Fair Play Instruction consistently enhanced students’ participation. Also, negative behaviors of students were reduced. Fair play behaviors include positive attitude towards opposing teams, accepting defeat with grace and enjoying victory without pride. It was concluded that such behavior cannot be cultivated in students unless teachers include them as PE goals. Conclusion The role of SE in ingraining the importance of physical activity in young people cannot be undermined. Since motivation level contributes towards increased enjoyment and involvement in SE course, therefore the focus should be on designing lessons to create motivational environment which can be achieved through high perceived competency and teachers’ attitudes. Group formation has been supported by most research results as this inculcates sense of belonging in students thereby enhancing their performance level. References Bennett, G. & Hastie, P. (1997) A Sport Education Curriculum Model for a Collegiate Physical Activity Course. Journal of Physical Education, Vol.68, No.1, pp.39-44 Brock, S.J., Rovegno, I. & Oliver, K.L. (2009) The influence of student status on student interactions and experiences during a sport education unit. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.14, No.4, pp.355-75 Brunton, J.A. (2003) Changing hierarchies of power in physical education using sport education. European Physical Education Review, Vol.9, No.3, pp.267-283 Harris , M.B, Griffin, J.(1997) Stereotypes and Personal Beliefs About Women Physical Education Teachers. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal,Vol.6, No.1, pp. 49 Hastie, P.A. (2012) Sport Education: International Perspectives, NY: Routledge Hastie, P.A., Ojeda, D.M. & Luquin, A.C. (2011) A Review of Research on Sport Education: 2004 to the present. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.16, No.2, pp.103-32 Hastie, P.A. & Sinelnikov, O.A. (2006) Russian students’ participation in and perceptions of a season of Sport Education. European Physical Education Review, Vol.12, No.2, pp.131-50 Kim, J., Penney, D. & Cho, M. (2006) ‘Not business as usual’: Sport Education pedagogy in practice. European Physical Education Review, Vol.12, No.3, pp.361-79 Kinchin, G.D., MacPhail, A. & Chroinin, D.N. (2009) Pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of a culminating festival within a sport education season in Irish primary schools. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.14, No.4, pp.391-406 Leader ,P.L.(2013) Physical Education and Sports for People with Visual Impairments and Deafblindness: Foundations of Instruction, by Lauren L. Lieberman, Paul E. Ponchillia, and Susan V. Ponchillia. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, Vol.107, No.2, pp 157 MacPhail, A. & Kinchin, G. (2004) The use of drawings as an evaluative tool: students’ experiences of Sport Education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.9, No.1, pp.87-108 MacPhail, A., Kirk, D. & Kinchin, G. (2004) Sport Education: promoting team affiliation through physical education. Journal of teaching in physical education, Vol.23, No.2, pp.106-22 MacPhail, A. et al. (2008) Children’s experiences of fun and enjoyment during a season of sport education. research quarterly for exercise and sport, Vol.79, No.3, pp..344-55 Mouratidis, A.et al(2008) The Motivating Role of Positive Feedback in Sport and Physical Education: Evidence for a Motivational Model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,Vol. 30,pp 240-268 Ntoumanis, N. (2001) A self-determination approach to the understanding of motivation in physical education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.71, pp.225-242 Perlman, D. (2010) Change in Affect and Needs Satisfaction for Amotivated Students within the Sport Education Model. Journal of teaching in physical education, Vol.29, pp.433-45 Perlman D. (2012) The influence of the Sport Education Model on developing autonomous instruction. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.17, No.5, pp.493-505 Stanescu, M. et al. (2011) Perception Of Students In Physical Education And Sports Field On The Teaching Career. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, Vol XII, No.1, pp.-107-119. Sun,Q. (2013) Study on Introduction of Leisure Sports into Physical Education in Universities. Asian Social Science, Vol. 9, No.10, pp.71-76 Vidoni, C. & Ward, P. (2009) Effects of Fair Play Instruction on student social skills during a middle school Sport Education unit. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.14, No.3, pp.285-310 Wallhead, T. & Ntoumanis, N. (2004) Effects of a Sport Education Intervention on Students’ Motivational Responses in Physical Education. Journal of teaching in physical education, Vol.23, No.1, pp.4-18 Wilson, A.J. et al. (2012) Transformational Teaching and Child Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation, and Engagement in Elementary School Physical Education. Sport, Exercise, Performance Psychology, Vol.1, No.4, pp.1-16 Yang, H-F. (2013) Study on the Sport Enjoyment and Learning Satisfaction of Unicycle Activity Participants. The Journal of International Management Studies, Vol.8, No.1, pp.96-107 Yao, X. (2011) Study on Countermeasures for Developing Sunshine Sports in Regular Institutions of Higher Learning. Asian Social Science. Vol.7, No.2, pp.177-181 Read More