Language Literacy and Learning - Literature review Example

Language Literacy and Learning Language Literacy and Learning Language is a cognitive aspect that truly defines human species because of the fact that they can express infinite ideas and sentences with a limited set of symbols in the way of speech, sounds and words. Whereas other species can communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful vocalizations for instance bonobos, or even with partially learned systems like the birds no other species known to date can rival human beings in this development. This ability of communication in humans is not only unique and complex but marvelous in itself. What makes it even more marvelous is the fact that researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in younger children, including infants as young as 12 months who reportedly have been found to possess sensitivity to the grammar needed to understand causative sentences for instance, who did what to whom (Rowland & Noble, 2010).Interestingly, in a similar light, Erick a four year old Vietnamese pre-school boy shows the practitioner something he id holding in his hands. Upon being asked what it was, he responds that it is a wiggly worm in reference to the worm’s movement. This reveals that little children communicate and understand the inherent meaning of their speeches, even if their full ability to communicate in a foreign language is not strongly developed yet. More than 60 years of child language development has shown that there are mechanisms that enable children to segment syllables and words out of strings of sounds they hear, and to acquire grammar to understand and produce language. Early Theories Skinner (1957) is one of the earliest scientists who provided explanations of language acquisitions. As one of the pioneers of behaviorism, he accounted for language development by the means of environmental influence. Skinner argued that children learn language on the basis of behavioral reinforcement principals through the association of words with meanings. In addition, he posited that correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. In other words, when a child says milk and the mother smiles and gives her some as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, thus enhancing the child’s language development (Ambridge & Lieven, 2011). However, Skinner’s account was soon heavily criticized by Noam Chomsky regarded as the world’s most famous linguist to date. In respect to the scientific wave of that laid the foundation of cognitive revolution in the 1950’s, Chomsky argued that children can never acquire the necessary tools needed for processing an infinite number of sentences if the language acquisition mechanism was predisposed on language alone. As a result, he therefore proposed the theory of Universal Grammar which is an idea of innate, biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category that facilitate the entire language development in children as well as overall language processing in adults. The concept is that universal grammar contains all grammatical information needed to combine categories such as noun and verbs into phrases. What was left for the child was just to learn the words of her language(Ambridge & Lieven),for instance, Erick ,a four year old Vietnamese boy in pre-school in conversing with a practitioner responded to a question about what he was going to do by answering thus “Build a big blue house,” in alliteration form. Therefore, according to universal grammar account, children had the ability to instinctively know how to combine a noun(for instance a girl) and a verb(to play) into a meaningful and correct phrase(A girl plays).As a result this Chomskian (1965) approach to language acquisition became the bane of inspiration to many scholars into investigating the nature of these assumed grammatical categories and from then until to date. Contemporary Research However, more than a decade later, theory of the existence of universal grammar began to be critically questioned by psycho linguists. They therefore argued that categories such as noun and verb are biologically, evolutionary and psychologically implausible and therefore it was necessary for the field to account by properly explaining for the acquisition process without innate categories. Consequently, this led researchers to posit that instead of having a language-specific mechanism for language processing, a possibility existed in which children utilized general cognitive and learning principals. Much as there are researchers who approach the language acquisition problem from the perspective of universal grammar and argue for early productivity, i.e. early adult-like knowledge of language, some researchers who are the opposing constructivist argue for a more gradual development process. Thus, it is suggested that children are sensitive to patterns in language which gives then an advantage in the acquisition process. This gradual pattern learning in children is referred to as Morphology acquisition. Morphemes are the smallest grammatical makers or units in language that alter words. For instance, in English language, regular plurals are marked with an-(s)-morpheme, e.g. dog-(dogs).Similarly, English third singular verb forms [she play(s), a boy eat(s)] are marked with the (s) morpheme. Therefore without the ability of weaving the finest grammatical components apart, children are thought of to acquire their first instance of third singular forms as entire phrasal chunks for instance Mummy laughs, a boy cries, a dog barks. The concept is that when a child hears a sufficient number of instances of linguistic construction(i.e. third singular verb form),she is able to detect patterns across the utterances she has heard, in which case the repeated pattern is the-(s) marker in this above example verb form. As a result of many repetitions and instances of the (s) marker in different verb forms, the child will acquire sophisticated knowledge that, in English, verbs must be marked with an-(s) morpheme in the third singular form(Ambridge & Lieven,2011). Every Child a Talker Early language lead practitioners rely on materials designed to support them both in their development as lead practitioners and in developing high quality language provision. They are designed to help practitioners in creating a conducive environment that supports and stimulates children into enjoying experimenting with and learning language. With the help of a child minder or even at the home setting with parents; it can be implemented even with children in their early years. EACT encourages early language development and helps children build vocabulary and sentences nurturing them into skilled communicators by the time they start schooling. Improving language development in a child’s formative years is important, therefore parents are encouraged encouraged of providing language learning opportunities at home to increase the level of their child’s improvement. Practitioners using ECAT offer supportive ideas about a child’s early language development, incorporating activities such as songs, reading of different books, regular visits to the library and story-sharing sessions which parents can join too. To the practitioners, ECAT equips them with appropriate skills and confidence enabling them to work effectively with parents both at home and learning settings. Practitioners talk with a child’s parents regularly and give updates of the child’s language development. Importance of Language Development Language is the basis of interaction between people. It is the means through which people communicate their needs, thoughts and share experiences. From the moment of birth, babies are ready for communication. They look and listen to people and survey with quiet interest things in their environment thereby responding to the different meanings of their cries, coos and gestures. Thus, a child’s ability to develop language depends on how well he or she is surrounded in an environment rich with words, sounds, rhythm, verbal and non-verbal cues from birth (BERTRAND, 2002:50). It is advisable for children to start school with extended vocabulary and ability to communicate effectively in order for their learning and quest of socializing and making friends can be more comfortable and fun activity. A special consideration should be given to disadvantaged children who might experience language delay and therefore learning difficulties later. ECAT is designed to offer the right support to children from their earliest days to prevent and take care of difficulties that might occur so that children have the chance to develop wholesomely. Early Intervention: Providing the Social and Emotional bedrock for all Children Early intervention is the key for every baby, child and young person to obtain and develop the social and emotional foundations upon which our success as humans depends (DICKINSON, 2005:89). An all roundel child with social capabilities and a good learning aptitude has a good chance in life. Denial of this opportunity at development exposes the child to a bad start and makes them not to acquire the qualities that are necessary to live a healthy life. It is hard for such children to recover later in life besides imposing heavy penalties on themselves and major general costs, financial and social in terms of their families, local communities and the national economy. The central problem for most developed countries is that intervention happens too late, when health, social and behavioral problems have taken a deep rooted into the children and young people’s lives. Delayed intervention destroys the chances of finding the right remedy for these problems and even reduces the likelihood of ever finding one. Delayed interventions only, more often than not increases the cost of palliative measures which because of the serious nature of the problems sometimes fail to address the source of the problems. Thus the culture of, late intervention is usually expensive and none effectual. However, early intervention programmes build foundations of social and emotional capabilities so that have the ability of developing into sustainable improvements in health, behavior and social and economic outcomes. Moreover, they offer immediate rewards to the individuals and the local communities where they live and give the prospects of lasting economic gains to society. The costs of early intervention far outweigh the cost of late intervention in terms of conservative estimates of savings for instance, an independent cost-benefit analysis of life skills traini8ng estimated it could provide a 25-fold return on initial, relatively small investment. In additionally, other investments in early education have been found to have lower rates of return, but, nevertheless, previously generate higher savings, especially when expressed in terms of individual benefit. For instance, the same cost-benefit analysis found on average early year’s education for 3 to 4 years olds in low income families had a benefit to cost ratio of 2.36 to 1in the U.S. which based on the current exchange rates corresponds to a net benefit per individual of notably more than 6,000 pounds. Real and Effective Early Intervention The benefits of early intervention are dependent upon the society establishing a healthy social and emotional development in infancy. Abundant evidence suggests the importance of the first three years of life in creating the foundations necessary to support learning, how to express emotion and understand and properly respond to these emotions as also expressed by others. Of utmost importance is the lessons learnt during these period can last a lifetime and prepare an individual to progress physically, mentally and emotionally I all stages of life not to mention in eventually becoming a good parent. This is to stress that lessons not learnt during these period become much harder to learn much later in life, for delaying only sets up an individual to fail later in life (LITTLE, 1999:111). Ecological Models of Human Development Urie Bronfenbrenner Theory: States that to properly understand human development, there is need to consider the entire ecological system in which growth occurs. This system comprises of five socially organized subsystems that support and guide human growth. They encompass the Microsystems which is the relationship existing between a developing person and the immediate environment, to the macro system, which are institutional patterns of culture e.g. the economy, customs and bodies of knowledge (UNDERDOWN, 2007:10).Ecologically models includes a vast body of research concerned with the processes and conditions governing the lifelong course defining human development within the actual environments in which human beings lives. General Ecological Model States that throughout the life course, human development goes through progressive processes of complex reciprocal interaction between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects, and symbols in its immediate environment (BOSS, 2004:286). To therefore show significant results, the interaction must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time. These kind of enduring forms of interaction within the immediate environment are known as proximal processes. Examples include pattern such as are found in parent-child and child-child activities, group or solitary play, reading, learning new skills, athletic activities and performing complex tasks. Another defining prosperity states that the form, power, content and direction of proximal processes affecting development vary systematically as a joint function of the characteristics of the developing person, of the environment and the nature of the developmental outcomes. From the perspective of ecological model, unfortunately the greater development impact of proximal processes in poorer environments is to be expected only for indices of developmental competence (for instance, mental ability, academic achievement, social skills) proximal processes are thought of as having greater impact in more stable and advantaged environments throughout the life course. Environments as Contexts of Development The ecological environment is a state of nested structures that move from the innermost level to the outside. These structures are defined as: Microsystems: This is a pattern of activities, social roles and interpersonal relations that impact as experiences of a developing person in a situation of face-to-face setting with defined physical, social and symbolic features that permit, invite or deter engagement in sustained but progressively more complex interaction with activities in the immediate environment for example family setting, school, peer group and work-place. Proximal processes operate within this immediate environment of the micro system to produce sustained development but their power to do so depend on the content and structure of the Microsystems. Mesosystems: It is made up of the linkages and processes that take place between two or more settings that contain the developing person for instance, the relations between home and school, school and work-place etc. Thus a mesosystem is a system of Microsystems. This encompasses the impact of two way communications and participation of decision making by parents and teachers. This joint involvement was seen to produce high and greater initiative plus independence after entering high school of elementary school pupils where they also showed higher grades (ADEKOLA, 2007:7). Exosystems: Includes the linkages and processes taking place between two or more settings but one which does not contain the developing person, but where events occur that indirectly influence processes within immediate setting where the developing person lives for instance for a child the relation between the home and the parent’s work-place; for a parent, the relation between the school and the neighborhood peer group. Macrosystems: These includes the overarching pattern of micro-,meso-,and exosystems characteristics of a given culture or subculture, especially the belief systems, bodies of knowledge, material resources, lifestyles, opportunity structures, hazards and the options of life embedded on each of these broader systems. It can be thought of as a societal blue-print for a particular culture or subculture. Chronosystems: A chronosystems includes change or consistency able to be seen after a period of time in the characteristics of the person and also of the environment in which that person lives for instance changes over time in the life of family structure, socio-economic status, employment, residential place or the level of ability in everyday life. Genetic Inheritance in Ecological perspective: According to Bronfenbrenner and Cecil(1993),the most recent extension of the ecological paradigm involves a reconceptualization of the role of genetics in human development. It is thought that heritability varies substantially as a direct function of the extent of proximal processes and the quality of the environments that they occur thus potentially yielding values of heritability that impact in terms of favoring or otherwise (UNDERDOWN,2007:11). Recommendations: Assessing children in their early years of life can be difficult this is a period in the live when their rates of physical, motor, and linguistic development exceed growth rates in all stages in their lives. Growth is not only rapid but episodic and highly influenced by environmental support which includes parents, quality care-givers and the learning setting. Young children learn through different ways and rates such as knowing things through doing as well as listening. Their achievements at any point are a result of a complex mix of their ability to learn and past learning opportunities. There is need for policy makers to support professional development through appropriate training of childhood care providers and teachers in children’s development within curricular areas to effectively support children’s learning. In-depth understanding of subject matter will enable teachers to capitalize on naturally occurring opportunities to talk about ideas and extend children’s thinking. Care-givers should be given appropriate assessment materials and tools that are tailored according to age-appropriate goals (BLAKE, 2002:226). Some of the recommendations include: Parents should be advised to start talking to their child at birth. This is because even new-born benefit from hearing speech. In the same vein they should make it habit of responding to their baby’s coos and babblings. Playing simple games with the baby such as peek-a-boo and patty cake are important in encouraging social and speech skills. Moreover, Listening to the child when they talk and encouraging eye contact and giving them time to respond. In addition parents should encourage story-telling and sharing of information such as describing to the child what they are doing, feeling and hearing during the course of the day. They could also sing to the child and expose them to music, use gestures along with words. They could also allow their child to play with children whose language is better than theirs to help them develop new language skills. Bibliography AMBRIDGE, B., & LIEVEN, E.V.M. (2011). Language Acquisition: Contrasting theoretical approaches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. BOSS, P. (2004). Sourcebook of family theories and methods: a contextual approach. New York, Springer ADEKOLA, O. A. (2007). Language, literacy and learning in primary schools implications for teacher development programs in Nigeria. Washington, D.C., World Bank. http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=459309 BERTRAND, N. P., STICE, C. F., & STICE, C. F. (2002). Good teaching: an integrated approach to language, literacy, and learning. Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann. BALL, A. F. (2004). Bakhtinian perspectives on language, literacy, and learning. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/description/cam041/2003065262.html BLAKE, B. E., & BLAKE, R. W. (2002). Literacy and learning: a reference handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif, ABC-CLIO. BRONFENBRENNER, U. (1979). The ecology of human development experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&A N=282631. DICKINSON, D. K., & TABORS, P. O. (2005). Beginning literacy with language: young children learning at home and school. Baltimore, P.H. Brookes Pub. CoUniversity LITTLE, M., & MOUNT, K. (1999). Prevention and early intervention with children in need. Aldershot, Ashgate NAREY, M. (2008). Making meaning constructing multimodal perspectives of language, literacy, and learning through arts-based early childhood education. New York, Springer. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&A N=261 580 ROWLAND, C. F.; & NOBLE, C. L. (2010). The role of syntactic structure in children’s sentence comprehension: Evidence from the dative. Language Learning and Development, 7(1): 55-75 STIERER, B., & MAYBIN, J. (1994). Language, literacy, and learning in educational practice: a reader. Clevedon, Avon, England, Multilingual Matters in association with the Open SILLIMAN, E. R., & WILKINSON, L. C. (2007). Language and literacy learning in schools. New York, Guilford Press SHAFFER, D. R. (2009). Social and personality development. Australia, Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. UNDERDOWN, A. (2007). Young childrens health and well-being. Maidenhead (GB), Open University Press Appendix The following transcript is a conversation that took place in the outdoor area of preschool with a 4 year old boy named Erik and a practitioner. Erik is Vietnamese; therefore English is his additional language. Erik comes from a working class background. Participant Discourse Interesting Features Erik Look what I got Smiles and makes eye contact with this hand out in front of him Practitioner What is it Erik? Erik Wiggly worm Refers to the worms movements Practitioner Wow where did you find that? Erik Digging patch (turns and points) Practitioner What does it feel like? Erik Slimey Practitioner I bet it does, what about the size of it? Erik It’s a mummy worm (laughs) Practitioner How do you know that? Erik Its big Practitioner Are you going to put it back safely in the mud then go and wash your hands please? Erik Okay, when mummy comes I tell mummy I holded a worm Over regularisation Practitioner Well done you’ve been very gentle with the worm. (E.N walks over to the digging patch and carefully places the worm down. Then he runs inside the setting) Erik I done it I wash them! (waves his hands at the practitioner while grinning) Practitioner Good boy, what are you going to do now? Erik Build a big blue house Alliteration Practitioner Okay then I’ll come and have a look when you’ve done. Erik I builded it! Over regularisation Practitioner That’s fantastic Erik Erik It had two door Doesn’t pluralise Practitioner Two doors? Practitioner corrects his pronunciation Erik Nods and smiles A ball kicked by another child comes rolling down the hill and knocks Erik’s house over. Practitioner Oh dear! Erik Naughty ball! Personification Practitioner Don’t worry you can build it again if you like Erik It went smash, smash, smash! Onomatopoeia Practitioner It did Erik I builded a lellow and um, gween one this time Pronunciation Practitioner Yellow and green? That will look nice Practitioner corrects his pronunciation Erik Me not got any windows Syntax, Incorrect use of grammar Practitioner How will you see outside? Erik Open the door Laughs Practitioner Look there’s some play dough on the tactile tray, you like play dough don’t you? Erik Nods and walks over to the tactile tray Practitioner Why don’t you make me some dinner? Erik Okay um…. sausages Practitioner Thank you I love sausages Erik I need knifes for cutting Practitioner There’s one over there Points to plastic knife Erik I’m rolling it Explains his actions Practitioner You’re doing a great job Erik And some peas, peas are circles Practitioner They do look like circles don’t they Erik I can’t do it circles Practitioner Shall I show you how to roll the play dough? Erik Yes, I cutted you some Over regularisation Practitioner Like this watch Rolls some play dough with her hands Erik Me do it Awww can’t do it Repeats the practitioners actions Pulls an unhappy face Practitioner Pick it up and roll it in your hands like this Shows Erik again Erik It’s raining Points outside of the shelter Practitioner It is, it’s a good job the play dough is under the shelter otherwise it would go sticky Erik laughs Practitioner What else have you noticed about the weather today? Erik It’s cold we need coats on Points to his coat Practitioner That’s right, what can you see in the sky today? Erik Clouds and birds and an aeroplane Looks up, over use of connective Practitioner That’s right Erik We need our hood up, where your hood? Doesn’t pluralise Practitioner I don’t have one on this coat Erik Mummy forgot my hat Taps his head to show where his hat should be Practitioner Oh dear, you’ll have to remind her tomorrow Erik Silly mummy forget my hat Puts his hands over his mouth and laughs Grammar Practitioner Shes not silly she might have been in a rush Erik Mummy rush for work Maintains eye contact Read More