Approaches to Learning for Learners with Special Education Needs - Literature review Example

Approaches to learning for learners with special education needs This chapter reviews some of the teaching practices and learning theories and strategies implemented by the teachers and their schools in enabling students with special education needs (SEN). What constitutes learning, teaching, needs of children with special needs and the outcomes of the teaching practices will be studied. Identifying children with special needs and the success with which the different teaching and learning strategies are implemented will also be studied. Learning and teaching approaches of teachers Picard (2004) while studying Louisiana’s teacher accountability program’s success finds that the long-term goal of this program is to enhance learning of student by improving the performance of the teachers in terms of skills and learning opportunities. Performance domains: planning, management and instruction are used to assess the skills and learning opportunities of teachers. The program has identified several attributes of teaching that are measured for their outcomes in terms of student learning and teaching performance. The attributes have strategies for gaining knowledge and practicing teaching skills under several different components with evidence based measurement of their success using specific resources. Some of the attributes of teaching under the three identified performance domains include table 1: Table 1: Attributes of teaching: Performance domain Planning Management Instruction Component The teacher plans effectively for instruction The teacher maintains an environment conducive to learning The teacher delivers instruction effectively Attribute -Specifies learner outcomes in clear, concise objectives -Includes activity/ environments that develop objectives -Identifies and plans for individual differences -Identifies materials/ equipment/resources/adaptations, other than standard classroom materials, as needed for lesson/activity -States method(s) of evaluation to measure learner outcomes -Develops/implements an Individualized Education Program (IEP) and/or Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), when appropriate. -Organizes available space, materials, and/or equipment to facilitate learning -Promotes a positive learning climate -Promotes a healthy, safe environment -Uses technique(s) which develop(s) lesson/ activity objective(s) -Sequences lesson/ activity to promote student learning/ development -Uses available teaching material(s), equipment, and environment to achieve lesson/ activity objective(s). -Adjusts lesson/ activity when appropriate -The teacher integrates technology into instruction Component The teacher maximizes the amount of time available for instruction The teacher presents appropriate content Attribute -Manages routines and transitions in a timely manner -Manages and/or adjusts time for activities and provision of auxiliary services -Presents functional content appropriate to the learners’ capacities -Presents relevant subject matter/curriculum content in appropriate settings -Illustrates applications of content through examples, unexpected situations, and other means Component The teacher manages learner behaviour to provide productive learning opportunities The teacher provides opportunities for student involvement in the learning process Attribute -Establishes expectations for learner behaviour -Uses monitoring techniques to facilitate learning -Accommodates individual differences -Demonstrates ability to communicate effectively with students -Stimulates and encourages independent performance and optimal levels of Thinking -Promotes student participation Component The teacher demonstrates ability to assess and facilitate student academic growth Attribute -Consistently monitors ongoing performance of students -Uses assessment technique(s) effectively -Provides timely feedback to students, caregivers, parents, and appropriate professional personnel -Produces evidence of student academic growth under his/her instruction Lamb’s Inquiry (2008) notes that there is increased effort to identify the provisions for learning support assistants who are responsible for providing support for children with SEN and there seems to be less focus on the expected outcomes for children. This is evident from the report’s observation after a series of meetings between parents of children with SENs and the school and local authorities. In the Green Paper (2011), ‘Support and aspiration: A new approach to special educational needs and disability’, the Department of Education, UK, notes some of the suggestions for improving skills and abilities of teachers involved in teaching children with SEN: As the right support and engagement from school’s leadership can go a long way to achieve the objectives of Achievement for All, it has developed a special program where the best practices in teaching children with SEN are shared with other school leaders, Develop more training opportunities for teachers and school leaders through launching of scholarship schemes for teachers to improve their knowledge and skills for teaching children with SEN and other disabilities by undertaking specialist postgraduate programs, producing training materials that can be used in initial teacher training (ITT) and continued professional development programs, Strengthen professional development by including specialist teaching and support development qualifications: Inclusive teaching and learning for disabled learners; Action Learning for teaching in a specialist area of disability and; Understanding theories and frameworks for teaching disabled learners, Set up clusters to encourage sharing of knowledge and expertise between the different specialist colleges and schools while also building capacity and sharing delivery arrangements. Learning stages of children Education of children is seen as an element of social competence by the European Union and is laid down in the Treaty of Maastricht. Also, education of children is considered from the angle of generating equity and efficiency in the region’s economy rather than focus on individual needs and development with rather a fear of being overtaken by the emerging economies in the increasingly globalized world. The Europe 2020 strategy has been chalked with an aim to reduce dropout rate to less than 10%. The Union has recognized the link between education and economy and has set out policies to make the education system an inclusive one with focus on performance based outcomes. There is no clear definition of the term inclusion but is more often seen to reflect the inclusion of children with special education needs, children being looked after by the local authorities or gifted and talented children, all of whom have specific needs in terms of learning skills needed for social, emotional and economic development along with the other children who fall into the mainstream (Riddell, 2012, p 9). The Department of Education Directorate in its white paper series on, ‘Inclusive Education’ (2005), observes that inclusive education should reflect the efficient utilization of existing resources and capacities to strengthen and transform an inclusive system of education where barriers to learning are reduced and learners’ needs are met in the most effective way through interventions and strategies that enable mechanisms and processes for learning. There is a tendency of inclusive programs to focus on learner disabilities rather than address the environmental barriers along with disabilities as a whole. Educational psychology frameworks are the most prominent theories used to draft inclusive frameworks but it is also needed that social, functional, economic and environmental factors also be taken into consideration for drafting an all inclusive system of education. Further, schools are required to take admissions for all children irrespective of the special educational needs identified and provide education as provided for mainstream children. If the children have a statement for special education, then the school authorities are required to consider the same in addressing the needs of the child. The Education Act, 1996 states that needs of children with special educational needs will have to be included into the mainstream education delivery to the extent possible and where it is not possible for the school authorities to provide for it, it falls on the local authorities to enable the same. And where the provisions are not available in the maintained mainstream schools, the local authorities arrange for admission into other maintained special schools or early education schools (Special Educational Needs Code of Practice, 2001, pp13-15). In the early years of a child’s development, their individual strengths and needs are assessed to determine the child’s health and educational needs to lead a successful life (NCSE, 2011). Children in pre-school or those below age five can develop serious and less obvious difficulties in language, cognition, emotional and social development which can persist through a lifetime. A caring home environment is the first influencing factor after which the support of teachers, care givers, etc. is sought for further development of the child. Early assessment of needs of children from two to five years is recommended by Education Act of 1980. Major pre-school curricular activities include: Communication and language Personal and social development Knowledge and understanding of the world environment Physical development and movement Expressive and aesthetic experience. During the child’s primary education stage, solid foundation is laid for acquiring knowledge and understanding skills and learning the curriculum. This stage lays the foundation for learning for lifetime. During this stage the child may exhibit incompetencies or difficulty in learning which can be attributed to personal or environmental factors. Physical, neurological, social or emotional reasons can affect the child’s learning capabilities that can affect lifetime learning. Identifying and assessing special education needs at this stage usually involves: Identification of difficulties in learning Referral to learning support co-ordinator Referral to support services outwith the school Consideration of the pupil’s needs by the educational psychologist Consideration is given to opening a Record of Needs Medical examination and psychological assessment Meeting to discuss opening of Record of Needs and Opening the Record of Needs. Children in the secondary stage of development also face the same kinds of difficulties faced during the primary stage. In addition, they may also face difficulties in the vocational context along with educational and social contexts. Early identification and assessment of any problems reveal that many have difficulties related to social, emotional and behavioural learning as there is conflict in parental, educational and societal expectations. Difficulties that arise at this stage relate to: physical and emotional development; the complex organisation of the secondary school; expectations of greater independence; an expanded curriculum; the vocational dimension; and preparation for transition to adulthood. In the context of further education colleges, student’s difficulties may be due to physical or sensory disabilities and require special equipment or adaptations to mainstream curriculum. Needs are identified and assessed based on which learning and teaching is facilitated through support from professionals and adapted curriculum and special equipment. Plans to implement for the individual student are useful in achieving the special needs (Effective provision for special educational needs, 1994). Davis, Florian, Ainscow et al. (2004) note the three phases of education: pre-school, key stages 1 & 2 and 3 & 4. During the pre-school stage of education of a child, focus is on parent-child interaction, the success of which significantly impacts future development. Progress in KS 1 & 2 reflects development of physical, intellectual and communication skills. KS 3 & 4 determine the support for school going students and young adults who need on-going support in the form of interventions and professional support. Children with special learning needs One definition that can be found for defining children with special education needs is, “children and youth with special health care needs are those who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioural, or emotional condition and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally” (Rhode Island kids count, 2003). When the needs of such special children are not met effectively in time, there are many negative impacts on the child, family and the society and can be for a lifetime. Psychological, emotional, social and intellectual abilities are disturbed which impact the child, family and the society at large. Unaddressed special needs can lead to family crisis in terms of stress on families and the need for intensive care and institutionalization. It can also lead to depression, malnutrition, abuse, neglect, crime and delinquency in the child. Unaddressed special needs may also lead to negative educational outcomes in terms of school dropouts and disproportionate suspensions while it can lead to negative impact on employment and economic development as it can lead to poverty, lower youth and adult employment rates and earnings (Rhode Island kids count, 2003). It is seen that disabilities are more commonly found in children coming from low income groups or minorities who do not always have access to health and community education. Prevention of disabilities can be prevented through access to preconception and prenatal health and counselling, injury prevention and avoiding prenatal and infant exposure to toxic hazards (Rhode Island kids count, 2003). Three primary individual learning styles: auditory, kinaesthetic and visual learning, exist which help a child learn and develop. There are other complementary learning styles: tactile, field-dependent, field-independent, reflective and impulsive. A combination of these basic approaches to teaching and learning can make a complex framework for students to learn. Success of a child learning skills necessary for the age are reflected in being able to achieve the core parameters: Scale & Time-Frame – the number (learning volume) of the items to be learnt in a given period Complexity – of items to be learnt in a given period Relevance – in supporting learner motivation Appropriateness – in achieving learner-centeredness Input – of teacher delivery and methods Output – suitable channels for the pupil to respond & participate Participation – extent to which the pupil is involved with tasks and processes Performance Indicators – setting appropriate benchmarks reflecting achievable, transparent and recognized goals (Marsh, 2005). “Each student with special education needs has an individual profile of abilities, needs, interests and learning preferences” (Students with special education needs, 2008). NCERT (2006) notes that special education in the earlier days was imparted for children who were identified to be deaf, dumb, blind and mentally disabled. While the definition of a child with special educational need differs from region to region, it invariably reflects a need for special provision by the school by adapting its teaching, curriculum and organization to provide additional resources and support to stimulate effective and efficient learning by the child which can directly and indirectly contribute to both personal and professional development of the child and the contribution to the economy of the country. According to British Columbia Ministry of Education (2006), “learning disabilities refer to a number of disorders that may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or non-verbal information” (Lessons in Learning, 2009). Identifying children with (SEN) Children with SEN have disproportionately poor outcomes and have lesser life chances. They find it difficult to have a smooth transition from school to work life and face difficulties in building successful professional and personal relationships (Support and aspiration: A new approach to special educational needs and disability, 2011). In the European countries, 12 classification categories are used to classify children under SEN and are mostly based on the type of disability. However, classification based on social or cultural differences also exist. England uses 12 categories and Scotland uses 18 categories to classify children with SEN and these different disabilities usually fall into two broad categories: normative and non-normative disabilities. Normative disabilities are those difficulties which are physical and sensory based and non-normative difficulties are those that are reflected in social, behavioural, emotional and learning difficulties. Types of disabilities or difficulties categorized in England: Specific Learning Difficulty Moderate Learning Difficulty Severe Learning Difficulty Profound & Multiple Learning Difficulty Behaviour, Social & Emotional Difficulty Speech, Language & Communications Needs Hearing Impairment Visual Impairment Multi-sensory Impairment Physical Disability Autistic Spectrum Disorder Other Difficulty/Disability And types of disabilities identified in Scotland: Learning Disability Dyslexia Other specific learning difficulty Other moderate learning difficulty Visual impairment Hearing impairment Deafblind Physical or motor impairment Language or speech disorder Autistic spectrum disorder Social, emotional & behavioural difficulties Physical health problems Mental health problems Interrupted learning English as an additional language Looked after More able pupil Other (Riddell, 2012). Children with SEN usually exhibit the following disabilities: Cognitive and Learning Difficulties- Children with these type of difficulties find it hard to read, write, spell or use numbers. They have short-term memory and lack organizational and co-ordination skills. These difficulties can be moderate, severe or profound (multiple) learning difficulties involving auditory, visual and multiple learning disabilities. Emotional, Behavioural and Social Difficulties- Children with such difficulties may have low self-esteem, under-achievement and inappropriate social behaviour. They may be violent and have short concentration span and high levels of impulsivity. They can also be withdrawn, aggressive, depressive or hyperactive. Communication and Interaction Difficulties- Children with these disorders have communication/ language disabilities and find it difficult to convey or understand and apprehend information from others. They also can have autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). Sensory and Physical Difficulties- These include hearing impairment, visual impairment, physical and medical difficulties. Some may also have multi-sensory disorders (Marsh, 2005). Policies for teaching children with Special Education Needs (SEN) It is believed that policies for pupils with SEN need not be any different from those for mainstream education pupils. However, there is a need for specific statements and guidelines on the implementation of the policies that exist for the active support from parents, teachers, schools, professionals and local authorities. These policy statements and guidelines are developed through a process of consultation with the different people who are involved in implementing the policies successfully. Policies that are of interest to most of the stakeholders are concerning the co-ordination provisions that exist and are needed for implementation of the policies from pre-school to post-school to support continued education. Educational authorities in the mainstream or special schools are required to implement the policies to develop a wide range of skills, values and attitudes to cope with the demands of the society (Effective provision for special educational needs, 1994). ‘Inclusion of Students with Special Educational Needs: Post-Primary Guidelines’ (2007) refers to the need for guidelines to implement the policies for SEN in mainstream and special schools. The guidelines assist schools in implementing provisions for children with SEN in mainstream and special schools using the existing resources. The aim of this is to ensure that children identified with SEN are provided an inclusive environment for overall development. The guidelines are helpful for the teachers, parents and other stakeholders in co-ordinating to provide the appropriate education to children with SEN. The guidelines provide a framework for policy implementation by calling for the co-ordination of the management and the parents that make an effective contribution to the development of the child. They also help in implementing the best practices in the school plan and take into account future needs for development, making it a whole-school development plan. United Nations and The Council of Europe have also identified statements and guidelines of national legislations stressing on the need for inclusive education for children with SEN in mainstream educational schools. There are special provisions to mainstream schools in terms of: resource teachers and special needs assistants special services and accommodations and schemes for schools in areas of educational disadvantage, etc. This paper cites several policies that exist for inclusive education for all children with SEN. Some of which are: The Education Act 1998 The Education (Welfare) Act 2000 The Equal Status Acts 2000 and 2004 The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act 2004 The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs (EPSEN) Act 2004, etc. All of the above and more relate to the implementation of the basic tenet or policy framework for provisions for inclusion of children with SEN into the mainstream education. Further, there are seven basic principles serving as guidelines for provisions for SEN: 1. All children, including those with special educational needs, have a right to an appropriate education. 2. The needs of the individual child should be the paramount consideration when decisions are made concerning the provision of special education for that child. 3. The parents of a child with special educational needs are entitled to and should be enabled to play an active part in the decision-making process; their wishes should be taken into consideration when recommendations on special education provision are being made. 4. A continuum of services should be provided for students with special educational needs, ranging from full-time education in ordinary classes, with additional support as may be necessary, to full-time education in special schools. 5. Except where individual circumstances make this impracticable, appropriate education for all students with special educational needs should be provided in ordinary schools. 6. Only in the most exceptional circumstances should it be necessary for a child to live away from home in order to avail of an appropriate education. 7. The state should provide adequate resources to ensure that students with special educational needs can have an education appropriate to those needs (Inclusion of Students with Special Educational Needs: Post-Primary Guidelines, 2007). These principles can be found to be the same and act as a framework for drafting any statements or guidelines for inclusive education. Legislative bodies like NCSE, National Educational Psychological Service (NEPS), UNESCO, etc. have laid frameworks for inclusive education for children with SEN and many reports, green papers and white papers have stressed on the different policies to provisions for special education in mainstream schools for the overall development of a child with SEN. Strategies for teaching children with SEN Early identification and intervention Leone and Weinberg (2010) note that ‘No child left behind’ Act similar to the aims of ‘Inclusive Education’ in Europe and other regions of the world calls for early identification and evidence-based assessment of a child’s need for intervention. Also, there is a strong relationship between the educational attainments of a child and his/her outcomes in adulthood. It is observed that academically competent children have more chances of becoming successful adults, have low rates of chronic diseases and higher life expectancy. They also have higher levels of income and lower rates of unemployment. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) entitles children with SEN to be identified, located and evaluated by the local authorities. It also entitles the children with school stability, educational continuity and interagency co-ordination. Children below age three, identified of being at risk of any disability are recommended for early intervention to avoid development of serious disabilities later in life. Pre-school programs, therapeutic pre-school programs, parent/ caregiver training, literacy programs, tutoring programs, out of school time programs, mentoring programs and college preparatory programs are some of the intervention programs that are available for implementation for children identified with SEN. Parent control A report by Dr.Douglas, Dr. Travers, McLinden et al. (2012) stresses on the need to establish positive relationship between the school SEN organizers and parents of disabled children. Parents of children with SEN have been positive about the schools establishing a two-way communication for better implementation of the programs for their children. But there are parents who have also expressed concerns that a whole-school setting not always meets the special needs of their children. The Green Paper (2011) notes that parents should be given control on deciding the kind of support their child receive as part of SEN education. Parents can have a greater impact on the child’s development while reducing bureaucratic and other interferences. It proposes that the service extended to the child is controlled by parents in terms of budget and service choice. Local authorities along with school authorities are to consult parents on the type of school and service the child will be provided with. Parents are to be provided with better information to be able to decide the service their child will be provided and the success of the same through local authorities and school authorities. Continuum of education Adaptations and modifications of services provided to children with SEN are recommended by the Ministry of Education, British Columbia with an aim to accommodate student’s needs in achieving outcomes as per intervention plan. Adaptations are usually best practices that help students achieve learning outcomes. This helps create a flexible learning environment while establishing a positive outcome and environment for the student. The outcomes of the adaptations should be graded and reported to help the child compare and progress to higher level of achievement. Another strategy used by teachers of SEN is modification which is similar to adaptations but enables a student to modify course outcomes based on the difficulty faced in learning. This strategy is normally used when the student finds it difficult to achieve learning outcomes of the planned curriculum. A typical adaptation or modification decision path is given in figure 1 (A Guide to Adaptations and Modifications, 2009). Figure 1: Adaptation or modification decision path. Source: (A Guide to Adaptations and Modifications, 2009). Four broader areas of interventions and outcomes have been identified by department of Early Learning Advisory Council along with other departments in Washington: child health and development, early care and education, parent and community partnerships and social, emotional and mental health. Each of the areas has specific strategies that can be implemented to achieve the desired outcomes of SEN children (Draft ELP Vision, Principles, Outcomes, Strategies, 2009). Individualized Instruction Plans (IIP), differentiated instruction and using collaborative learning techniques are other strategies advocated in Canada. For students with specific difficulties, following table 2 lists the different strategies available for use (Students with special education needs, 2008): Table 2: Strategies for specific difficulties: Area Strategy Strategies for Students with Attention Difficulties Create structure to focus attention. Give cues when students are to shift their attention. Allow time for movement. Encourage students to maintain focus and mental energy. Use low-key cues to correct inappropriate behaviour. Encourage students to attend to instructions. Strategies for Students with Memory Difficulties Use instructional techniques that support and enhance memory skills. Integrate memory aids into each learning activity. Provide multisensory cues to make information and skills easier to remember. Set up classroom organizational systems and routines for easier access of information and materials. Teach students strategies for memorizing specific pieces of information. Strategies for Students with Listening Difficulties Provide students with appropriate expressions to clarify meaning and to confirm comprehension, Present information in a “listener-friendly” way; Model and practise active listening strategies in class. Strategies for Students with Reading Difficulties Create extra support for students with reading difficulties. Teach students specific reading strategies. Cognitive Strategy Instruction Match strategies to the requirements of the learning task. Provide strategy instruction consistent with the student’s current knowledge and skill level. Provide opportunities for extensive practice in strategy use. Prompt students to use specific strategies at appropriate times. Outcomes of SEN programs A survey report by Education and Training Inspectorate (2006) in UK reveals that a majority of the schools have improved outcomes in terms of achieving student achievements in literacy and numeracy. There is a higher instance of self-confidence and sense of achievement among both students and teachers of SEN. Further, educational outcomes in the different regions are evaluated based on the broad areas: attainment-related outcomes related to school process outcomes attendance-related outcomes related to dropouts, graduation, exclusion and attendance happiness-related outcomes related to self-esteem, confidence and smooth transitions independence-related outcomes relate to employment, etc. The outcomes are gathered through: national/state accountability records national general surveys/census large-scale evaluations research studies: often surveys, interventions and tracking studies focused on particular groups. Attainment and attendance related outcomes are usually recorded at school and are easily available while independence related outcomes are obtained through surveys. There are many schools and local bodies that evaluate the outcomes of their SEN programs using the above mentioned methods (Brown, Edgar, Hadreas et al, 1994). However, there seems to be no clarity and standard method of evaluating the outcomes of the program uniformly across the region. Summary Different regions have different policies, statements and guidelines for implementing programs for children with special educational needs. However, all are based on the basic principle of providing an all inclusive educational environment where no child is left behind when it comes to accessing the best of education and other learning and developmental facilities in life. It is seen that the higher the education of a child, greater is the contribution to economy. For this reason, and for the purpose of providing equal opportunity to life for all, the different governments under the aegis of international bodies like UN and UNESCO have been focusing on SEN provisions in mainstream and special schools with the co-operation and co-ordination of teachers, professionals, parents and local authorities. Different strategies to implement the programs exist, and it can be seen that many of them are tied to some kind of evaluation process to assess the success of the programs. However, it is not a uniform practice to evaluate the outcomes of the program implementation based on standard and uniform best practices that are applicable across different regions. Each region has its own process of evaluation while most of them can be found to be revolving around the four outcomes in terms of attainment of literacy and numeracy, attendance, independence in terms of future employment and finally happiness in terms of level of self-esteem and confidence. These outcomes relate to the social, cognitive, emotional and intellectual development of a child which are the basic learning and developmental skills that the SEN programs aim to achieve. This implies that while SEN programs are implemented with an appropriate level of outcome based strategies, it is still not clearly tied to the specific outcomes as there are adaptations and modifications required to be made for individual students. References 1. A Guide to Adaptations and Modifications. 2009. Ministry of Education, British Columbia. 2. Brown, P, Edgar, E, Hadreas, C et al. 1994. Outcomes In Special Education: What We Know And How We Could Know More. University of Washington. 3. Davis, P, Florian, L, Aisncow, M et al. 2004. Teaching Strategies and Approaches for Pupils with Special Educational Needs: A Scoping Study. Research Report RR516. 4. Dr. Douglas, G, Dr. Travers, J, McLinden, M et al. 2012. Measuring Educational Engagement, Progress and Outcomes for Children with Special Education Needs. NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION RESEARCH REPORT NO.11. 5. Draft ELP Vision, Principles, Outcomes, Strategies. 2009. Available online: http://www.del.wa.gov/publications/elac-qris/docs/ELP_OutcomesStrategiesDraft102209.pdf Accessed on: 11th February 2013. 6. Education and Training Inspectorate. 2006. Provision and Outcomes for Pupils with Special Educational Needs in Post-Primary Schools. Available online: http://www.etini.gov.uk/survey-on-provision-and-outcomes-for-pupils-with-special-educational-needs-in-post-primary-schools-executive-summary.pdf Accessed on: 11th February 2013. 7. Effective provision for special educational needs. 1994. The Scottish Office Education Department. PEC. 8. Green Paper. 2011. Support and aspiration: A new approach to special educational needs and disability. Available online: http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/. Accessed on: 11th February 2013. 9. Inclusion of Students with Special Educational Needs: Post-Primary Guidelines. 2007. Department of Education and Science, Dublin. 10. Lamb’s Inquiry. 2008. Special educational needs and parental confidence. Department of Education, UK. 11. Leone, P and Weinberg, L. 2010. Addressing the Unmet Educational Needs of Children and Youth in the Juvenile Justice and Child Welfare Systems. Centre for juvenile justice reform and Georgetown University. 12. Lessons in learning. 2009. Does placement matter? Canadian Council on Learning. 13. Marsh, D. 2005. Teaching Languages To Learners With Special Needs. European Commission DG EAC 23 03 Lot 3. 14. NCERT. 2006. National focus group on education of children with special needs. Position Paper 3.3. 15. NCSE. 2011. Children with special educational needs. Available online: www.ncse.ie Accessed on: 11th February 2013. 16. Picard, JC. 2004. Strategies for effective teaching in the 21st century. Louisiana Department of Education. 17. Rhode Island kids count. 2003. Issue Brief. 18. Special Educational Needs Code of Practice. 2001. DfES/581/2001. pp13-15. 19. Students with special education needs. 2008. Ukrainian Language Arts Guide to Implementation (4–6). Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada. 20. Support and aspiration: A new approach to special educational needs and disability. 2011. Department of Education, London. Read More