Value of Physical Education - Literature review Example

CHAPTER 2 Review of the Literature Two major issues in education have led to a focus on physical activity and its effects on academic performance. One is the attention that has been placed on the problem of obesity in school-aged children. The other is the need to improve school performance generally in the nation. The connection between these two issues, or more significantly the potential benefit of physical activity in addressing both these issues makes this study a useful one. Increasing data on the relationship between physical activity and academic performance can help educators and curriculum specialist appreciate the need for physical education to be part of the school curriculum. As Sallis, McKenzie, Kolody, Lewis, Marshall & Rosengard, (1999, p.127) point out, “Physical educators are continually trying to justify the value of their work to avoid cuts or elimination of requirements and funding”. In order to highlight the importance of physical education, a link to academic performance would be influential. The purpose of this study is to discover if there is a relationship between Fitnessgram test scores and CAT/6 test scores. The literature review will examine the effect physical fitness may have on academic performance. The majority of the literature was obtained through the GOOGLE Internet search engine, ProQuest, ERIC and the National University online library. Some keywords used were: physical fitness, physical education, physical activity, exercise, brain, academic excellence, academic performance, and academic achievement. These words were used in many different combinations. While many references were found, most of the literature referred to the same six or seven studies. Literature on brain and the effects of physical activity is limited in availability. The majority of the literature found referenced research on school-age students and the relationship between academic performance and physical activity. The problem with many of these studies is that they are either too broad or use high performing students as the subjects. These studies do not concentrate on the low performing schools that may be impacted more by this type of study. This study will help to fill that gap as it is carried out in a large, low-performing, urban school. Theoretical Framework Physical activity is related to improved academic performance. This theoretical concept of improving academic performance through physical activity is thought to be derived from both the effect of physical activity on the brain and also on the emotional and mental processes. Chomitz et al (2009) state that “results from animal studies show that physical activity stimulates neural development including a greater density of neural synapses and higher capillary volume”. (p.31). Thus the brain is stimulated by physical activity in a positive way. The authors also suggest that self-esteem is raised by physical activity and anxiety and stress are lowered. Each of these is associated with enhanced academic performance. Value of Physical Education Obesity has increased over 20 percent in the past decade and almost one-quarter of all children in the United States are obese (Gabbard, 2000). Many changes in the environment contribute to this: “decrease in the number of mandated physical education programs in schools, lower physical activity levels, increase in caloric intake due to the availability of fast-foods, lack of safe neighborhood areas to exercise, and the perpetual development of technology (computer, video games, television)” (Langford & Carter, 2003, p.28). Many schools in California have removed junk food from their campuses in an attempt to contribute to healthier students. This alone has not lead to a greater value in physical education. The healthier eating style must be combined with physical activity. Physical education contributes greatly to a student’s well being. Research has shown that it decreases stress and depression, increases energy and self-esteem and has a large effect on physical fitness levels (Gauvin & Spence, 1996). In addition to these effects on health, Dwyer et al (2005, p.225) point out that “Although physical education programs can be justified on the basis of their health benefits alone, it is important to understand any effects on academic achievement”. “People who take the time to exercise and strengthen their bodies are also strengthening their minds” (Orr 2003, p.28). The connections of the brain’s cerebellum, known for its function in coordination, balance, posture and movement, are distributed to all areas of the brain. Research has found a pathway from the cerebellum to parts of the brain that are involved in memory. It is believed that the cerebellum actually filters data and permits complex decision-making (Jensen, 1998). A study done on lab rats by Greenough and Anderson in 1991 showed that rats exposed to enriched exercise environments had more neuron connections and had more capillaries around the brain’s neurons than sedentary rats. It is common knowledge that exercise shapes the heart, muscles, lungs and bones but research shows that exercise also strengthens key areas of the brain (Jensen, 1998). The MRI images taken of unfit people show increased brain shrinkage in comparison to fit people (Drozd, 2003). New brain research is focusing on a brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a chemical that helps nerve cells grow and connect (Jozefowicz, 2004). “This natural substance enhances cognition by boosting the ability of neurons to communicate with one another” (Jensen, 1998, p.86). BDNF can influence everything from memory to mood and research found that rats with higher BDNF in their brains were able to navigate mazes quicker than the rats with lower levels of BDNF (Jozefowicz, 2004). Neuroscientists at the University of California at Irvine found that exercise actually increases the release of BDNF into the brain (Jensen, 1998). While BDNF is harder to study in people many studies over the last decade have showed that exercising elevated BDNF in animals (Jozefowicz, 2004). Physical activity therefore is important for health of the body and for improved brain function in several different ways. Improving the physical and mental health can only make the conditions more conducive for improved academic achievement. Relationship between physical education and academic achievement “The relationship between physical activity and academic achievement has been the subject of research and speculation for many decades” (Lindner, 1999, p.129). As early as 1933 studies were done in France, and repeated in 1951, to investigate the effect of two hours daily of physical education activities on children. The experimental group improved both physically and academically (Prosser and Jiang, 2008). This kind of research continued through the 1970s and 1980s. In 1985 a study was done on 9,000 Australian school children aged 7-15 (Dwyer et al., 2001). The students’ principals rated the students’ academic ability on a 5-point scale. The students were given a survey that asked detailed questions about their physical activity participation. The survey covered every activity from walking to school, running around during recess, physical education participation, school sport participation to after-school activities. The students were also tested on a 1.6-kilometer run, sit-ups, pushups, a 50-meter sprint, and the standing long jump. The results were correlated and a positive relationship was found showing that physical activity enhances academic performance. This study was very extensive and detailed. The sample was a representative cross-section with an equal number of boys and girls in each age group. The study covered student perception of physical activity as well as actual fitness test scores. The academic information was based on the principals’ perception, not necessarily on grade point averages or test scores. Academic information may be biased in this study. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) Program, a more rigorous physical education program, was introduced to elementary schools during a research project. Project SPARK (Sallis et al., 1999) looked at the effects of a school’s physical education program on standardized achievement scores. The Metropolitan Achievement Test scores for 759 students before the SPARK program were compared to their tests after two years of the program. The control group in this study continued with their regular P.E. program and did not participate in SPARK. The results showed that physical education does not have a negative effect on standardized academic achievement test scores. Percentile rankings of the test scores went down from second grade to fifth grade for all groups but the students that participated in the SPARK Program had less of a decline. While this study did show some positive relation between physical education and academic achievement it was not conclusive. This study was done in a high performing school district and the baseline test scores were already high. Lindner (1999) conducted a study in Hong Kong on the effects of physical activity and academic achievement. A questionnaire was given to children from 5th to 7th grade. They were asked to rate their academic performance and their level of physical activity participation in regards to type, frequency and duration. The results showed that students that perceive themselves to be higher academic performers had higher participation levels in sports. “The results of the statistical analyses indicate clearly that sport and exercise participation cannot in general be considered a detriment to academic performance” (Lindner, 1999, p.138). This study only gives the students perception and doesn’t seem to give substantial evidence that physical activity has a positive relationship with academic achievement. It does seem to show that the physically active students have more confidence in their academic performance. In another study, eighty-nine suburban high school seniors completed a questionnaire to determine if there was a relationship between exercise, adolescent relationships and academics (Field, et al., 2001). The students rated their amount of exercise, their relationships with friends and family, family support, depression, drug use, sports involvement and grade point average. The results indicated that the students that exercised more had less drug use, better relationships and higher grade point averages. This study covered more than Lindner’s study and using a students’ grade point average seems to be more accurate than a student’s perception. This study was done on middle to high socio-economic level students and still does not address low socio-economic level students. Lindner (2002) conducted a second study in Hong Kong to research the relationship between academic performance and physical activity, perceived and actual performance and the effect of academic tracking (Lindner 2002). Tracking, or banding, occurs when students are categorized by their academic level. In this case, students’ achievement level determines what school they will attend. There are three different school bands in Hong Kong: high, medium and low. Schools were chosen from each band and students were given the same questionnaire from Lindner’s first study. Principals provided the student’s academic performance information by providing grade point averages or grades. The information was correlated and showed that increased physical activity participation did not affect the grades of the middle and high band schools. However, it did show that low band students’ grade point averages decreased with more physical activity participation. The results “did not resolve the issue of whether the relationship between physical activity participation and academic performance is a causal one, a selection matter, or an interference phenomenon” (Lindner, 2002, p.164). The study did show that higher band schools have a higher level of physical activity participation. Physical activity participation levels were based on the students’ perception and could be open to interpretation. This study still does not address the effects of physical fitness on academic performance. Students who don’t participate in high levels of physical activity might still be physically fit. The amount of physical activity may not have as much effect on academics as physical fitness levels. In 2002, the California Department of Education (CDE) conducted a study to determine if physically fit students performed better academically. The research matched the Fitnessgram scores of 5th, 7th, and 9th graders with the students test scores from the Stanford Achievement Test, Ninth Edition (SAT-9) in reading and mathematics. 353,000 fifth graders, 322,000 seventh graders and 279,000 ninth graders were used for this study. The research found that the students with higher levels of fitness showed higher levels of achievement on the SAT-9. The relationship was the highest in mathematics and the largest academic improvements were from students that scored three or higher on the Fitnessgram. State Superintendent of Public Instruction Delaine Eastin said: We now have the proof we’ve been looking for: students achieve best when they are physically fit. Thousands of years ago, the Greeks understood the importance of improving spirit, mind, and body. The research presented here validates their philosophic approach with scientific validation (California, December 10, 2002). The fact that this study uses two standardized tests maximizes the validity. It is a very broad study of California students and doesn’t give individual schools specific results. Though the studies have been varied in the sample populations and the measures of physical fitness and academic achievement, the general conclusion is that physical fitness is beneficial to academic achievement. Not only do the test scores show a positive effect of physical activity, but the students have a better self-concept and sense of achievement. This helps to motivate them to want to do better. Conceptual Holes, Problems and Needs “Just providing evidence that a positive relationship exists, even without being able to identify the precise reasons for it, would be helpful in dispelling the myth that activity involvement and academic success are incompatible entities (Lindner, 1999, p.130). The studies that have been discussed in this chapter show compelling evidence that a positive relationship does exist between physical fitness and academic success. However, Prosser and Jiang (2008) point out some cautions in interpreting the effects of physical activity on academic performance- that there have been some studies which did not establish a positive correlation between physical activity and academic performance; that a correlation between the two does not necessarily mean there is causality; that it is sometimes difficult to determine which is cause and which is effect and that there may even be a third factor affecting both academic achievement and physical fitness. It makes it even more important that studies such as these be carried out to help in establishing the relationship between physical activity and academic achievement. Most of the research either covers high performing populations, middle to high-class populations or populations that include all performance levels. None of the studies concentrated specifically on a low performing population. So as Sallis et al (1999, p.130) point out “Studies of health-related physical education need to be conducted in school districts with lower baseline achievement test scores to determine whether physical education can improve achievement rankings” Apart from the sample population to be studied, the measurement tools used to gather the data are important. Many of the studies involve self-reporting by the subjects causing the validity of the research to be questionable. Standardized tests serve as a more reliable measure of academic performance. This study utilizes the CAT/6 test to obtain data on academic performance. There have been many challenges to maintaining physical education programs in the schools. Gabbard (2000) pointed out that if a school’s goal is to raise academic test scores physical education will be a low priority. Later, Blaydes (2002) recognized that “Physical education programs are being eliminated or reduced because of budget reductions or the perceived need for increased time for academic core subjects in order to raise test scores”. Despite the research been presented, “Local school leaders and stakeholders often remain unconvinced that improving student health represents a means to achieving improved academic outcomes” (Symons, Cinelli, James &Groff, 1997, p.220). According to Shephard (1997): Advocates of quality daily physical education have frequently been confronted by school administrators or parents who point to growing pressures on overall curricular time, and who maintain (apparently without any good supporting evidence) that hours ‘wasted’ on required physical education jeopardize a child’s overall academic performance (p.114). Only thirteen states require elementary physical education to be taught by a P.E. specialist and more than half of the states require one year of P.E. in grades 9-12 or have no requirements at all (Langford & Carter, 2003). Thus despite the evidence of the benefits of physical activity, there is much convincing still to be done both of school personnel and parents. Implications for Practice (Schools, Districts, Classrooms, Teaching, Teachers and/or Students Researching the relationship between academic achievement and physical fitness at a low performing school needs to be done. These schools are the same institutions that are attempting to find new ways to improve test scores. If low performing schools were faced with the evidence of a relationship between physical activity and the academic achievement of their own students, they would be compelled to view their physical education department as an academic resource. Implications for Inquiry As previously stated proving the existence of a correlation between physical activity and academic achievement do not necessarily show causation. Some studies have made the distinction between physical activity and physical education programs in the schools. The more information available on the relationship, the easier it will be to develop physical education programs in the schools, especially the low-performing schools. Rationale for Action Research Question and Study Design The review of the literature points to the importance of the research question- what effect does physical fitness have on academic performance. Although many studies have been done on various samples, using various measures, it is clear that there is need for more studies answering this question. This study will also help to unravel the puzzle of which is cause and which is effect – academic performance or physical fitness. Finally this action research study will lead to development and improvements in Physical Education programs that will be useful in improving students’ achievement test scores. Additional References Chomitz, V.R., Slining M.M., McGowan, P.J., Mitchell, S.E., Dawson, G.F. and Hacker K.A. 92009). Is there a relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement? Positive results from public school children in Northeastern United States. Journal of School Health. 79 (1), 30-37 Prosser, L. and Jiang, X. (2008). Relationship between school physical activity and academic performance of children. The International Journal of Learning. 15(3), 11-18 Ps. Note that your reference Pumping up. The author is Orr, Tamara. Pumping Up is the name of the article. You need to correct that in your reference list. Read More