The Utility of Qualitative Methods: A Reflection - Case Study Example

Running Head: Qualitative Methods The Utility of Qualitative Methods: A Reflection The has accorded me the chance to appreciate qualitative methods. I am personally not keen about research methods prior to taking the course; however, as I am immersed with the concepts and its practical facets, I find myself engaged in learning more about them because of their utility in my profession as a teacher. I have learned that a majority of qualitative methods focus on the subject of the research and his emotional perception of the study which usually requires him to plunge into a cultural condition. Because of this, the researcher, especially in the social sciences, directly relates with the subjects under observations and gathers data by conducting intensive interviews and observation, focus groups discussions and exhaustive meetings and consultation. The researcher generally finds out the effect and significance of a common experience or condition and unfolds the psychological course which elicits a behavior. Thus, the measurements are subjective, non numerical, applicable only to the cluster concerned, labor-intensive and, oftentimes, affected by the biases of the researcher. Although Flyvbjerg (2006) rejects the idea that qualitative methods especially case studies are partial and difficult to summarize. Pope and Mays (1995) also mention that this method is inductive, theoretical and action-based. In a different perspective, qualitative methods provide systematic measures that guide quantitative data. Qualitative research techniques, such as description and analysis, also precede measurements and classification as it takes an issue or a structure in general, thus allowing easier and accurate interpretation of variables (Griffiths and Byrne, 1998). By focusing on textual data and the spoken word rather than on numerical data and statistical methods, qualitative research is meant to describe human experiences in various subjects. The multiple perspectives of each participant are the direct source of data for this research design. By analyzing frequent phrases, patterns or statements from the participants, the researchers are able to develop a theoretical basis for their conclusions. Furthermore, this research approach may entail observing participants in their natural setting, jotting down notes during the process, and thematically analyzing these (Patton, 2002). I realize that qualitative methods do have practical applications in my practice of teaching. For instance, I can use qualitative methods, in the form of interviews or focus group to discussions, to assess the effectiveness of a particular program or novel pedagogical technique. This may be carried out by first choosing my participants in either a random or non-random sampling technique, depending on the purpose for which the qualitative research is being undertaken. It is assumed that even before the selection of the participants, I have already designed the interview questionnaire or the focus group guide. Moreover, I have also gone through the process of having these instruments validated by a content matter expert, particularly someone from the academe. Both face validity and content validity of the instruments are to be ascertained by these experts. After selecting the participants, I shall then proceed by carrying out the interview or focus groups. The responses are analyzed through thematic analysis. I have learned through the course as well that thematic analysis involves clustering similar themes together, and juxtaposing these themes against what past literature says. As with quantitative research, the results of the qualitative research may be used for improving the educational program, by addressing whatever concerns have been expressed during these exercises. According to Patton (2002), qualitative design may be very tedious and time consuming. I do agree with this assertion; however, it does have its benefits despite the tedium and the time it requires. For one, the quality of the data is commendable, because it has dealt with the research topic with more depth. However, to come up with valid and meaningful data, I as researcher must adapt to the participants’ conditions in order to extract the information I need without jeopardizing the content and value of the data. Yet another realization I have about qualitative data is the critical role of the researcher; his competence will make or break the meaningfulness with which the results of the research are interpreted. The analysis of data could pose as a major threat to the success of the study. It is possible that after being influenced by the participants’ environment, interpretation of the data could be subject to my biases and personal opinion (Myers, 2002). The main advantage of opting for this research type lies in its descriptive reports and exploration of human views that could offer a better understanding of the problem, from participants’ phenomenology. I have also learned that the use of qualitative research is particularly useful in tandem with the case study method. In such a method, there are only few subjects focused on, and yet the exploration of the topic at hand is investigated with more depth. It highlights the detailed analysis of an event, human condition or social relationships. Moreover, according to Yin (2003), a case study is defined as an empirical inquiry between real-life context and contemporary phenomenon, especially when the relationship between the two is ambiguous. On other the other hand, Creswell (2002) presents the case study as the start of an inquiry that will bring up profound understanding regarding the system where a problem or issue is situated. The system will eventually become the case and within the system, the researcher would choose an event, activity or any form of contemporary phenomenon that does not have clear boundaries within the real-life context, making it the subject of the case. In my case as educator, case studies may also be undertaken, and in which qualitative methods may be used. For example, I may choose to carry out a case study of my school, where a particular educational program is being launched and implemented. For example, if I shall be part of a new charter school and I want to compare relative effectiveness of teaching methods in my school, I can select a case study method then. I also realize that the case study method is more apt when the study is exploratory or novel in nature or when there is a scarcity in the number of subjects that may be studied. Despite being extensively used by researchers, Stake (2005) cited that a case study is difficult methodology. It is possible to deduct theory from a case study; however, it does not provide the same ease with which conclusions are derived as in quantitative research. Lincoln and Guba (2002) also discussed that, despite the absence of ‘true’ generalization, there could be a working hypothesis that provides the case study researcher with the idea needed for the research. It is made possible by applying a tentative hypothesis that is formulated according to rational, specific conditions and circumstances (Merriam, 1988). Lincoln and Guba (2002) may perhaps be correct in their assertion that qualitative research methods may exclusively not provide enough information regarding a phenomenon. In such a case, I have learned that it is best to use triangulation, meaning a variety of methods for ensuring that results validate each other. The combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods of research has been referred to as mixed methods research and offer a comprehensive analysis of the study that is otherwise neglected if one aspect alone is considered. Usually, this is approach is done for strategic functions such as in acquiring subsidy for the research. The effectiveness of a method that is applied, however, largely depends on the type of response being measured. For example, in the medical field, quantitative methods are widely accepted while qualitative measurements are usually ambiguous (Borreani et al., 2004). There are several advantages of using a mixed research method. One advantage is getting superior results or corroboration due to the use of two methods. Another advantage in using a mixed research method is being able to cover up all the loopholes of a particular method. However in order to benefit from using the mixed method the researcher should combine the characteristics and procedures of qualitative and quantitative design in such a ay that weakness are not overlapping and strengths become complementary (Johnson & Christensen, 2007). Going back to my example of a novel program that is being assessed for effectiveness, the qualitative methods of interviews and focus group discussions may be complemented by the use of survey questionnaires so that qualitative data may be further supported by quantitative metrics. This will lend more validity to the research results. A phenomenological paradigm is adopted in qualitative research, and the case study is one of the phenomenological methodologies. The case study methodology is an extensive examination of a single instance of a phenomenon of interest and is an example of a phenomenological methodology (Collis and Hussey, 2003). Moreover, Collis and Hussey (2003) state that interview is a method of collecting data in which selected respondents are asked questions in order to find out what they do, think and feel. There are some advantages of the interview. Firstly, the interview is more appropriate for complex situations. Secondly, it is useful for collecting in-depth information. Thirdly, information can be supplemented. Fourthly, questions can be explained and finally, interviewing has a wider application (Ranjit, 1999). The interview also has many disadvantages to issue. Interviewing is time-consuming and expensive. On the other hand, the quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction. In addition, the quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer. Otherwise, the quality of data may vary when many interviewers are used. And the researcher may introduce his/her bias and the interviewer may biased (Ranjit, 1999). There are various ways of collecting data for a qualitative research. For instance, interviews, participant observation, and direct observation may be employed. An interview is a focused face-to-face meeting between two parties, namely, the interviewer and the interviewee (Treece & Treece Jr., 1977). The difference of an interview from a simple list of open-ended questions is that the former may be considered as an ordinary dialogue between two people. The researcher is not subject to follow any plan during the interview although he/she could formulate a simple guide to follow. The dialogue could supply a wealth of information since the discussion may cover several topics that are related to the main focus of the study. The interview method is further classified into three types: the structured, semi-structured and non-structured interviewing types. I personally prefer the semi-structured interview over the other types. Semi-structured interviewing is a type of interview in which the researcher, who will act as the interviewer, is not strictly limited to the questions that he has to ask. This suggests that I could ask additional questions that I deems necessary for the extensive coverage of topic, since it will enable me to gather more in-depth information (Treece & Treece Jr., 1977). Participant observation, on the other hand, is an ethnographic research method that helps the researcher in gathering the data through observing and participating in the study population’s daily activities. In doing so, the researcher is out to learn the perspectives held by the participants (Mack et al, 2005). On the other hand, direct observation, according to Taylor-Powell and Steele (1996), allows the researcher to document the activities, behavior and physical aspects of participants without relying on their willingness to respond. Seeing and listening are the main key behaviors in order to carry out direct observation effectually. Again, going back to the same example mentioned previously of a particular program introduced in a school setting and is being assessed for effectiveness, participant observation may also be used. I can sit in classes that are currently implementing the program and co-facilitate lessons with the teachers. This way, I will be able to fully empathize with the faculty regarding their concerns about the program and how it is being deployed. On the other hand, if I were to do direct observation, this obviates the need for me to co-facilitate the lessons. I can simply ask for permission and sit in the classes in which the program is being implemented. I can then document my observations in those classes. Just like other research methods, qualitative research allows the use of a single or multi-modal approach (Writing Guide: Case Study, 2008). I realize that by using more than one tool for data collection, a study would be more accurate and convincing, mainly because there is substantial information supporting my claim as researcher. Qualitative data analysis may be done in two ways; holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis attempts to draw the idea and conclusion by understanding the context as a whole while coding entails that the data be broken into pieces, searching for specific information (Writing Guide: Case Study, 2008). I learned through the course as well that in doing qualitative research, the validity and reliability of the study is always emphasized and serves as perennial points of contention. I as the researcher must set a clear basis for the evaluation of the study’s validity and reliability. According to Morse et al (2002) “trustworthiness” may be ambivalent and may cause confusion among researchers. There are two standards definitions of trustworthiness and these were derived from Yin (1994) and Lincoln and Guba (1985). According to Yin (1994), trustworthiness is described as the criterion used to assess the quality of the research design, while Lincoln and Guba (1985) refer to it as the goal of the research. These two standards were later on followed by other researchers, which resulted in the development of a criteria or a standard for evaluating the validity of the evidence that have been presented for research process. I realize as well that without reliable tools, the effort and money wasted on data gathering is all futile. The results of the research will be biased and will not serve the original purpose for which it has been designed. As such, I must be very keen in ensuring that all the tools used for my qualitative research must be both reliable and valid. According to Morse et al (2002), aside from the issue of setting validity and reliability, there are still four factors that need to be considered in order to the research to be considered worthwhile. These are truth value, applicability, consistency, and neutrality. In order to meet these criteria for the research study, Morse et al (2002) has suggested different trustworthiness strategies to be used in different cases of qualitative research. There are at least six verification strategies that could be used in verifying the validity and reliability of a study. However, one may prove sufficient for a study to ensure the reliability and validity of data. The verification strategy of having an adequate and representative sample would be the best out of the six verifications strategies, and which may be employed in the present study (Morse et al, 2002). Moreover, I have also learned that selecting the appropriate participants would ensure that the data represents accuracy and veracity. According to Morse et al (2002), under this strategy, sampling adequacy, saturation of evidence and its replication would be attained, ensuring that all data needed to account all the aspects of the phenomenon or the topic have already been obtained. Data that have undergone saturation would guarantee replication of categories, while the latter ensures comprehension and completeness that are needed to adequately meet the verification standards (Morse et al, 2002). Despite minor disadvantages, many researchers have stressed the applicability of using both methods of research in virtually all fields. OCathain et al. (2007) have reviewed that advantages of mixed method research and included its practicality and comprehensiveness as a major factor of its adoption in many studies. It tries to answer a wide variety of questions that also introduces multiple methods of analysis for each. In clinical trials, this method can help improve aspects that are usually unnoticed in medical service records, and include steps to humanize a particular treatment and consider it realistically. In an NIH study, for example, it was observed that engaging in group activities; specifically religious groups can improve wellbeing. In addition, political conditions, economic plights and even the media has considerable effects on health. The method also assures the accuracy of the results and findings and provides means for considering factors or groups that were once neglected or not sample from. Thus, it is an efficient tool to plan and develop the different measures and steps in a research, ensuring equal sampling, efficient data gathering and supervised analysis. In addition, although complex, in the long run it can simplify the conditions and result in a more sound judgment regarding the topic. It also allows the researcher to evolve and consider new aspects aside from his field of study. Because of this, new discoveries can be opened and other mixed fields can be further explored and developed. It ensures complementarity, verifiability and provides ways for an expanded study that is both reasonable and practical (OCathain et al., 2007). Conclusion Overall, the course has accorded me the opportunity to learn about the theoretical and practical aspects of qualitative research. This has spurred me to study advanced qualitative methods to be able to acquire the competencies required of a skilled researcher. Through the course, I have learned as well that the whole process of using both qualitative and quantitative methods of research is labor intensive and requires careful planning at each step of the study. It is multi-faceted and can sometimes be confusing both to the test subject and the researchers. Because of this, the method requires a pool of experts from different fields. Also, it can entail data sharing and information transfer from one institute or laboratory to another. During the process of data transferring, information might be lost, misunderstood or infringed. Combining both methods also increase the complexity of the study, incorporates factors that can compound and affect the result and behavior of other variables. In addition, since the study entails a great deal of manpower and employs several methods, it also requires a large budget. It requires incorporation of fellowship programs, and in the social field of study, it requires devising equipment and identifying measurable quantities for analysis. The results, though reproducible, may be difficult to replicate as it usually entails a huge amount of resources, longer periods of time and many researchers. These are among the disadvantages of using a mixed-method scheme. References Borreani, C., Miccinesi, G., Brunelli, C., & Lina, M. (2004). An increasing number of qualitative research papers in oncology and palliative care: does it mean a thorough development of the methodology of research? Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 2, 7. Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003), Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students, 2nd edition. New York, Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Creswell, J. (2002) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches. London: Sage. Griffiths, F. and Byrne, D. 1998. General practice and the new science emerging from the theories of ‘chaos’ and complexity. British Journal of General Practice. 48:1697-1699. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 191-216). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Johnson, B & Christensen, L. (2007) Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches. 3rd edition. Sage Publications. Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K., Guest, G. & Namey, E. (200). Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Family Health International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA. Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Myers, M. (2002). Qualitative research and the generalizability question: Standing firm with Proteus. The Qualitative Report, 4(3/4). OCathain, C.; Murphy, E; Nicholl, J. 2007. Why, and how, mixed methods research is undertaken in health services research in England: a mixed methods study. BMC Health Services Research, 7, 85. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pope, C and Mays, N. 1995. Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research. British Medical Journal. 311:42-45. Ranjit, K. (1999), Research Methodology: A Step-by-step Guide for Beginners. Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Limited. Stake, R. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 433-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Taylor-Powell, E. & Steele, S. (1996). Program development and evaluation, collecting evaluation data: Direct observation. Cooperative Extension Publications, Mifflin Street, Madison. Treece, E.W. & Treece, J.W. Jr. (1977). The elements of research in nursing (2nd ed.). Saint Louis: Mosby Company. Writing Guide: Case Studies. (2008). Retrieved October 15, 2008 from http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/casestudy/pop3c.cfm Yin, R. K. (1994). Discovering the future of the case study method in evaluation research. Evaluation Practice, 15, 283-290. Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Read More