Management of Change in Education - Case Study Example

Management of Change in Education Summary: Reforms in education in Northern Ireland have primarily sought to bring about diversity in schools by introducing integrated schools where Protestant, Catholic and students of other faiths can mingle freely with each other. Programs that have been targeted at secondary school students seek to enhance the relevance of education for these students who will become the adults of tomorrow. This study seeks to assess whether these reforms are likely to be beneficial and whether they can be sustained. The management of change within educational institutions is a delicate issue, because there are a variety of conflicting factors that inhibit the preservation of innovative reform measures. The long term sustainability of innovative reform measures has not come through successfully and researchers in America have pointed out how modern trends of globalization and the pressure of market forces on education have restricted innovation. While the 1970s in America was a period characterized by high levels of innovation in educational practices, most were not sustainable into the present, since educational institutions have been increasingly subject to the need to maintain accountability. The principle behind the introduction of accountability policies appears to be that when educators are required to demonstrate performance, they are likely to impart higher standards of education. However, in practice, this has not been the case. As other experts have pointed out, the failure of educational reform policies may be due to the fact that historical, political, economic and environmental factors are not taken into account when implementing reform. As a result, quick results are sought and temporary leaders are brought in for the specific purpose of providing short term solutions which may not be of long term benefit to the community. Furthermore, making educators liable and accountable by requiring performance often results in a greater reliance and attention being devoted to testing and assessment of students and less time and resources being devoted to the development of other equally important skills – social and spiritual competency skills which are very important in Ireland’s environment of religious fragmentation. As experts have pointed out, transformational leadership is traditionally associated with the visionary individual attributes of leaders. But educational leadership in practice may be a different issue altogether. Leadership becomes a strategic issue, where good leaders are able to manage the resources available to the organization and arrange their distribution in such a manner that performance can be demonstrated through the utilization of those resources. Moreover, leaders are often unwilling to lay themselves on the line and hesitate to introduce innovation in reform that is not geared towards specifically enhancing performance in students in tests, etc which may be externally demonstrated. As a result, there is a need for distributed leadership, in which teachers are empowered. Moreover, the best kinds of leadership models that are likely to be effective are those that are relevant to the local context of the schools. Therefore requiring accountability standards that do not take into account the political, social, economic and environmental contextual issues that may be characteristic of particular school districts is not likely to being in any sustainable reform. One of the reform measures introduced into Ireland is the move to promote diversity through the introduction of integrated schools. The development of such schools goes to the root of the problems that have plagued Ireland for many decades – the religious conflict. Through the introduction of specific programs that are designed to impart a knowledge of cultural heritage, social skills and social competencies among secondary school students, the reform measures appear to be poised to enjoy sustainability because they take into account historical factors of the past. Moreover, the transfer of responsibility for distribution of funds and decision making in this regard into the hands of the local authorities bodes well for the future of these reforms. Since control has been vested in the hands of local bodies, with parents on the local boards, the long term benefit of the Community is likely to be a primary concern. Therefore such educational reforms are likely to be sustainable. LITERATURE REVIEW Northern Ireland: Education in Northern Ireland cannot be entirely separated from its religious context. While Catholic and Protestant pupils were educated separately, recent trends and financial support from the Government have supported a move towards integrated schooling. In 1984, the 11-16 Curriculum development Programme was launched, with its main aim being to “improve the quality and relevance of education” especially for secondary school students who “do not relate positively…..and currently achieve little from it.” (O Shea 1987). One of the problems that has occurred in reaching out to students in secondary schools is the focus upon achievements in standardized tests for entry into grammar schools, without the curricula providing enough material to improve student social skills. In view of the religious conflicts between protestant and Catholics which have been a part of Irish history for several decades, there is a need to introduce measures within the educational system that will take into account the need to promote social integration and unity within the population of Northern Ireland, a trend that must be set primarily in secondary schools. The Northern Ireland Council for Educational Development (NICED) was set up in 1980, with its responsibilities extending to include primary school pupils and students beyond the age of 16. This body has designed curriculum guidelines which are geared to specifically provide support for teachers at the individual school levels. (Daly, n.d). Since 1990, Ireland has a curriculum which has introduced two statutory cross curricular themes – Education for Mutual Understanding and Cultural Heritage, intended to address the North Ireland conflict through education. The objective of introducing these items in the curriculum was stated as “to address issues of conflict, mistrust and division within North Ireland society and a wish to identify and appreciate those elements of culture which are commonly shared, as well as those which divide society.”(Birthistle, 2000). Limited studies have been carried out in Northern Ireland on school effectiveness, however the new assessment and testing procedures are likely to emerge as the dominant phenomenon in terms of educational developments. Gardner and Cowan (2000) conducted a study of the reliability and validity of the Northern Ireland transfer test that 11 year olds in Ireland are expected to take when they want to go to grammar school. The children are allowed only one attempt in taking the test and their performance in the test determines the course of their future schooling. The test does not measure any single attribute of students and it is perceived to be very easy by most students, since in Gardner and Cowan’s study, most students answered questions correctly but the easiness aspect of it may itself be a serious design flaw. The authors point out that while tests in most countries are administered in accordance with the requirements spelt out under the American Educational Research Association’s Standards for Educational and psychological testing, British standards have been different. British examination bodies have avoided the publication of any data that deals with the technical fidelity of the instruments used in their tests. This is a glaring anomaly during a time when transparency and accountability is increasingly being demanded of British institutions. A greater degree of openness and accountability is required in respect to a test which can have a profound effect on a child’s future. (Gardner and Cowan, 2000). Hargreaves and Goodson (2006) recently carried out a study examining change in eight secondary educational institutions in America and Canada, with the finding that educational change practices tend to neglect political, historical and longitudinal aspects of change. The purpose of this study was top examine change in the long run, identifying five major internal and external forces responsible for change in direction in schools, converging at particular historical moments. These forces have been identified as (a) changing student demographics (b) teacher generations (c) leadership succession (d) school interrelations and (e) waves of reform. Schools have the responsibility to prepare students not only to achieve good academia levels but also to prepare them for life; and Whitty contends that any changes by way of educational reforms must also be linked to changes in society.(Whitty 2002). Education has become mainly subject oriented rather than also allowing for the promotion of social understanding. Hargreaves and Goodson (2006) have highlighted several reform measures that have been undertaken in the field of education, including “forcefully executed, closely aligned and intensively applied large scale reform efforts at the district or national levels” through 15 years of U.K. national educational reform; however most of the reform measures appear to peak for two years and then stabilize, producing a stronger impact on elementary school students than on students in high schools. (Hargreaves and Goodson, 2006:5). Hence, these authors highlight the inability of most of these reform programs to have a long lasting impact. They have also drawn upon the views of other researchers who have noted that reform efforts fuelled by political drivers ignore the influence of the past and avoid an engagement with a historical and political perspective. Therefore, their study analyzes change both longitudinally and retrospectively over a much longer period than the traditionally utilized one of five years. Through the incorporation of the time factor and long term sustainability of reform programs into their study, the authors have noted that the five forces of change appear to converge at specific historical moments to create overarching waves of change, and these points of converge mark the beginning and the end of specific historical periods. They have identified economic and demographics as the major societal forces that drive these forces of change (Hargreaves and Goodson, 2006: 28). For example, the 1970s were a period in American history where a buoyant economic ensured higher levels of State investment in educational initiatives such as the Head Start program. However, with recent trends in globalization and standardization are rampant, life is moving fast, all social initiatives are subject to market forces and levels of uncertainty have increased, which has impacted negatively on education and the need for community values and interaction, which is so much a part f the social learning process that is integral to true education. Accountability: Accountability has been introduced into schools through reform measures, purportedly to elevate standards of performance, however this is debated by experts. Elmore (2006) has argued that the extent of the accountability policy depends on the extent to which explicit strategies are employed for the development and deployment of knowledge and skill in classrooms. The problem that arises when accountability standards are raised is that less attention and resources are directed towards the development of knowledge and skills, while there is overinvestment in testing and regulatory controls. He points out that the social, economic and political roots of such accountability policies run deep The rationale behind the introduction of accountability policies is that when schools are held accountable for results, then through testing, classification schemes and sanctions, both students and the people in schools will come to understand what the policy makers expect of them, which will produce a change in both individual and collective behavior. However, as Elmore points out, the notion that such accountability produces consequent elevations in performance have not been proved in actual practice. In fact, the policies themselves have little effect, rather it is the context within which such policies are introduced that produces ripples in terms of social interventions. Policies are ineffective when their goal appears to be to force action out of school authorities, students and teachers in accordance with the policy requirements; however they only work when they are able to move different parts of distribution of schools in a similar direction through the use of different types of policy instruments. (Elmore, 2006:5). Elmore (2006) also points out that accountability is based on the fallacious view that schools will do better if they are given clear information about their performance. However, such information is likely to be helpful only if it is combined with new knowledge and skill, since mere knowledge about existing practices which are already being exercised by teachers and educators to the limit of their skills and knowledge is unlikely to be helpful. According to Elmore, a school that adopts a well defined approach to curricula, discussions on instructional practice that are content focused and the use of structured occasions to discuss student performance would qualify as one that maintains high standards of internal accountability. However, the danger with such schools is that complacency may develop. One notable finding in the study conducted by Hargreaves and Goodson (2006) was the impact of social, cultural and political changes in the environment on school activities and performance. Commitment to school activities declined in American schools after the baby boomer era because of increased choices for after school activities and the growth of part time jobs. Dramatic racial and socio economic shifts, accelerated succession of principals coupled with increasing standardization in school districts weakened the impact of innovative reform measures introduced in some schools and undermined their capacity to be different (Hargreaves and Goodson, 2006:25). This is also exacerbated by competitive market forces and through the network of links existing in the community and the district/state. Standardization has brought in a proclivity to adhere to established standards in education, even among innovative teachers, rather than initiating or maintaining reforms that may undermine their professional image and working conditions. In so far as actual learning within an educational institution is concerned, Elmore (2006) is of the view that individual and/or collective learning is a developmental process and improvements do not take place at a steady rate. In actually improving the links between social understanding and subject proficiencies, Whitty’s findings are as follows: “…our research suggested that the notion of theme-related cross-curricular provision through subjects as the main strategy for social education will clearly need to be rethought in future revisions of the National Curriculum, something that has now been recognised to the extent that citizenship is to become part of the statutory provision from 2002” (Whitty, 2002:44). This could have implications in terms of integrated schools, which are now being advocated by Government and religious organizations working in tandem, which is analyzed further later in this report. Reform processes have made schools subject to market forces, which has a detrimental impact on equity and on the achievement of higher standards in education, since it may create divisions in terms of educational access. According to Whitty, society and the Government have a collective responsibility for education and the goal of imparting an integrated education must be achieved without “recreating the very bureaucratic systems whose shortcomings have helped to legitimize the tendency to treat education as a public good rather than a public responsibility.” (Whitty, 2002: 62). School leadership: As pointed out by Hughes et al(2002), “Leadership is a complex phenomenon involving the leader, the followers and the situation.”(p 6). Therefore leadership cannot be assumed to be a position, rather it is a process of interaction between a leader, followers and the situation. Peter Senge (1990) presented several ways of thinking and acting of the leadership of an organization in such a manner that learning systems within it can be changed to address the weaknesses. Therefore, staying circumscribed within the fixed boundaries of a particular role may be ineffective and need re-learning, as suggested by Senge. Senge’s theory demonstrates that while changes may occur in leadership and there has supposedly been a learning from the experience, the reality often a missing out of the long range effect of these changes and its impact upon the organization. This is precisely the weakness that has also been pointed out in the study by Hargreaves and Goodson (2006), in demonstrating that educational reform policies have not found to be effective in the long term. Similarly, management teams may be involved in power and ego battles, avoiding anything that might make them look bad on a personal level. This negates their actual function, which is to identify and solve problems. Whitty(2002) has also highlighted the lack of trust in educational institutions that is propagated through the media and the consequent tensions generated in a system that is under State control. Since educators may be more concerned about surviving in the short term, this may restrain them from implementing measures that may be good in the long term and according to Whitty (2002), this is one issue that must be urgently addressed if education is to progress. The transformational leadership approach as advocated by Bernard Bass (1985) states that a good leader will try to transform the attitudes and relationships between the people who work under him. For example, as opposed to attempting to control the behavior of their subordinates, transformational leaders are more interested in coaching staff and providing guidelines for conduct rather than exerting high levels of control. As a result, the atmosphere created within the school is a more relaxed, supportive environment where there is scope for individual differences and high levels of communication between leaders and their subordinates, since the leader is willing to listen and help subordinates to improve and adapt their conduct and skills to the requirements of dealing with different kinds of situations. Bass and Avilio (2000) have pointed out the differences between transactional and transformational leaders – although most leaders may display both kinds of characteristics, they tend to gravitate in one direction or the other. A transactional approach to leadership is one where the leader’s actions and relationships with subordinates/followers arise in response to a particular situation. A transactional leader is not so heavily concerned with morals or ethics, neither is he overly concerned with bringing about deep down changes within the existing system and orienting himself and his organization towards long term goals (www.bgfl.org). However, in the modern day organizational context within educational institutions where conflicts between social skills teaching and subject proficiency is in conflict and ethical standards are increasingly under scrutiny, it is vital that teachers and principals possess moral integrity and high levels of honesty, which is associated with the transformational style of leadership. A transformational leader seeks to inspire and elicit desirable conduct from subordinates through the use of ideals, inspirational tools, intellectual stimulation and paying attention to individual differences in order to motivate employees to be committed to their work. In this way, a transformational leader also seeks to bring about long term changes within the organization rather than merely reacting to a particular situation or crisis by empowering others to evaluate their goals and values (Foster 1986:187). Such leaders possess the ability to move beyond consideration of their own interests and power play towards a deeper understanding of organizational problems and employees. Researchers have however found only a limited amount of correlation between leadership practices and learning. For example, based upon the evidence that Hargreaves and Goodson (2006:20) were able to collect in their study, their conclusion is that distributed leadership in a school is likely to prove more effective; that in order for school reform programs to be sustainable over the long term, the excessive importance attributed to leadership must be reduced, to also take into account external factors such as frequency of succession of leaders and pressures to bring about rapid changes in underperforming schools. This may be the reason why most programs dealing with educational reforms must advocate distributed leadership styles, with teachers developing their teaching practices based upon their own ideas and experiences, thereby adopting a pro-active role in bringing about changes in curriculum.(Leithwood, Jantzi and Steinbach, 2002). Distributed leadership is now a prominent issue in educational reform because it achieves empowerment of teachers to create democratic schools.(Hatcher, 2005). Elmore (2006) deals with the issue of leadership in the new environment of accountability that has become characteristic of educational systems in present times. He presents an alternative view of accountability which suggests that schools do not suddenly become accountable because of policies that are thrust upon them. Rather they already have existing systems of acceptability, although these may not be exactly in line with accountability policies but are derived out of the context within which the schools operate. Hence, the effectiveness of external accountability policies will depend upon how well schools respond to the incentives the policy generates in their external environment, as well as their existing capacity to respond to such policies. Therefore, in the context of accountability policies, the role of leadership becomes a different one. Leadership becomes a focusing and sorting action, dealing with the confusing, ambivalent signals in the environment and determining which are valuable and must be adhered to, in modeling the accountability response to the organization. In this context therefore, accountable leaders may not be passive or reactive, transformational or transactional leaders. Furthermore, as Elmore (2006) points out, the use of turn around specialist leaders whose purpose is to specifically turn around failing schools is itself flawed, because such leaders are likely to introduce policies that will not be beneficial in the long term. On the other hand, the extent of suitability or the effectiveness of a particular leadership model will depend to a great extent upon the environment of a particular school and the context within which leadership activity takes place. Leaders become strategic players, using the system of accountability in introducing or sustaining measures that will position their organizations better to gain resources and capacity. (Elmore, 2006:8) Therefore, those leaders who are successful are not necessarily those who comply with accounting policies and do what they’re told, rather they are able to strategically use existing resources to improve performance and thereby gain more resources and capacity. Hence, on this basis, leadership becomes more a question of practice rather than one of personal attributes possessed by the leaders. Leadership is not a quality that is inborn, rather it is a skill consisting of a pattern of actions based on knowledge and skills which can be taught and learned. It is a theory of action that connects their actions with the consequences of quality and performance; however the effectiveness of performance of these theories of action is contingent upon the settings within which they are enacted. Therefore, the theory of practice cannot be generalized, rather it is peculiar to the institutional settings within which it occurs and will be effective when it leads to systematic improvements in performance over time. Effectiveness of integrated schools: In the light of the foregoing literature review, it may therefore be noted that in so far as educational reforms and the management of change are concerned, there has been a general trend for established practices to prevail, while innovative reforms tend to be short term. Some of the reasons that have been advocated by experts to explain the lack of sustainability of reform measures include the tendency for standardization due to pressures from the outside environment and community. The introduction of accountability and the need to maintain performance standards has put further pressure on schools to focus less on long term sustainability of reform measures. Market forces and globalization have diminished the value of social learning that is a vital part of the educational process and focused upon subject mastery through standardized tests. The issue of leadership is especially important in the context of the success of educational reforms. Leadership needs in schools that could be effective are likely to be distributed systems of leadership, while styles of leadership relying solely upon individual attributes may not be as relevant within an educational system where accountability is paramount. These aspects may also be applied to the initiative to maintain positive social relationship between different cultural and religious groups in secondary schools in Northern Ireland. Government initiatives that have sought to promote reform measures in northern Ireland include the Education reform Act of 1988, the Education reform (Northern Ireland) Order 1989 and the Self Governing schools act. These measures have sought to transfer funding and staffing responsibilities to the educational institutions. The recent Bain review report was commissioned specifically for the purpose of examining the educational needs of 14 to 19 years olds. (www.bbc.co.uk). The Bain review report has recommended increasing sharing and collaborative efforts among schools, with an end to academic selections. New schools set up in this format would impart specialized education and end the supremacy of the standardized testing for entry into grammar schools, whose limited efficacy has been pointed out in the study by Gardner and Cowan(2000). Increased collaboration between schools is also likely to further the goals of integrated schools that brings together students from Catholic, Protestant and other religious backgrounds.(www.bbc.co.uk) The Ulster Project is another significant move that also seeks to address ethnic religious conflicts in Northern Ireland, through the education of youth and the improvement of their social and communicative skills. (Carlin and Kennedy 2002). The goals of the project are to promote intellectual development, social goals as well spirituality. The project seeks to achieve this through five specific themes: (a) communication (b) leadership and risk taking (c) conflict deliberation (d) understanding of social practice and (e) interdependence and collaboration. Perry (2007) has dealt with the problem of religious divisions in Irish society and the challenges this generates for teachers, parents, students and education authorities. However, the number of integrated schools in Ireland is increasing, which in itself is a good example of the efforts to accommodate diversity in schools. The move towards integration is in itself a recognition of the social and environmental factors that need to propel educational reforms. As opposed to traditional reform measures which Hargreaves and Goodson(2006) have identified as lacking in historical perspective, the new reform measures to promote integrated schools takes into account the context of religious conflicts which has formed a part of Ireland’s history for several decades. The need for healing of past wounds and the promotion of unity through diversity is apparent in these reforms. However, an important aspect that must be considered here is the lack of sustainability in reform measures. While the reform measures have taken into account the historical context, are the diversity goals of the reform process likely to be sustained through the long term? The Northern Ireland Council for integrated education is funded by the Education department, however the progress in the development of integrated schools may be due to a large extent to the cooperation between religious institutions, the Government and the community, including parents, teachers and students. Issues of leadership will be very important in the context of further development of integrated schools. The fact that funding and decision making for schools is being handed over to local authorities is likely to bode well for progress of these reforms, since it would facilitate the application of distributed systems of leadership, which could provide teachers and educational professional a more pro active role in development of plans and programs for individual schools. This could address many of the teacher education issues that were examined by McMohan (2000), such as the need to address teacher competencies, courses and early training. He has pointed out that improvements in the educational process would require greater levels of discourse among teachers and doing away with quantification as a way of categorizing people. The inclusion of diversity into schools is a welcome reform measure, however if it is to be sustained as a long term measure, then it needs to include training on social skills and the development of social competencies to students to address the contextual problems that exist due to the religious conflicts. This would also include imparting fresh skills to teachers, where necessary, in order to shift the emphasis away from an over-reliance on subject proficiency to the imparting of a more integrated curriculum for students that also includes social skills and spiritual competencies. The Ulster Curriculum therefore offers excellent scope for long term sustainability of the reform measures, since it seeks to impart social and spiritual competencies among students rather than merely promoting subject proficiencies through standardized testing. Since this program is also targeted at students in the age group of 11-17, it is likely to be especially beneficial to young people who are at a vulnerable age where they can develop into productive or non productive citizens in society. Moreover, with the transfer of funding to local school management authorities, it appears likely that funding can be effectively directed to meet the specific needs of a particular neighborhood, rather than setting standardized goals that are measured through performance assessments only. When funding is in the hands of local authorities, the Board of Governors will play a significant role in the decisions that are made (www.bbc.co.uk). Since many parents are members of local Boards, therefore there is a good possibility that the dispensation of funds will be tailored to meet the specific needs of students in the area and is likely to achieve the desired ends, as control will rest in the hands of local authorities themselves. This in itself bodes well for the long term sustainability of these reform measures, since the literature review above has identified the importance of taking into account, contextual issues in maintaining sustainability of reform measures. Since the people involved in decisions on funding include local authorities and parents of students, therefore it is unlikely that the turn-around specialist kind of leaders of the kind pointed out by Elmore (2006) will be used in these schools in Northern Ireland. Since the members who will make these important decisions are people from the community, who are interested in the long term welfare of schools and in improving the social networking among teachers, students and the community, the long term success of these measures appears to be well assured. The reaction of the community to educational reforms that bring funding into the control of local bodies is likely to be a favorable one as well. The levels of inputs from the community are likely to be higher through the representation of parents and local educational authorities on the school boards and therefore there is also more scope for the introduction of innovative measures that will be relevant in the particular context. Those measures which bring about successful diversity and promote student integration into the community are likely to be carried on into future years as well, thereby offering good scope in the long term. . References: * Bass, Bernard, 1985. “Leadership and Performance beyond expectations” New York: Free Press. * Bass, B.M, 1998. “Transformational leadership”. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers * Birthistle, Ursula, 2000. “Peace Education: the importance of social engagement skills and a Human Rights Framework.” [online] available at: www.eric.ed.gov, Document number: ED 441 747 * Carlin, Erin and Kennedy, Colleen, M, 2000. “The Ulster Project Curriculum Handbook” [online] available from www.eric.ed.gov; Document no: ED 442 728 * Daly, Peter. “Northern Ireland” * Gardner, John and Cowan, Pamela, 2000. “Testing the test: A study of the reliability and validity of the Northern Ireland transfer procedure test in enabling the selection of pupils for Grammar school places.” [online] available from: www.eric.ed.gov Document no: ED 467 432 * Hallinger, Philip, 2003. “Leading educational change: reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership.” Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3). * Hargreaves, Andy and Goodson, Ivor, 2006. “Educational change over time? The sustainability and non sustainability of three decades of secondary school change and continuity.” Educational Administration Quarterly, 42(1): 3-41 * Hatcher, Richard, 2005. “The distribution of power and leadership in schools.” British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26(2): 253-267 * Hughes, Richard L, Ginnett, Robert C and Curphy, Gordon C, 2002. “Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of experience.” McGraw Hill “Leadership” [online] available at: http://www.bgfl.org/services/leaders/files/leadship.pdf * Leithwood, K, Jantzi, D and Steinback, R, 2002. “Changing leadership for Changing times.” Buckingham: Open University Press. * O’Shea, A.T., 1987. “Planning to institutionalize a programme of curriculum review and development for 11-16 year olds in Northern Ireland” IN Miles, M.B, Ekholm, M and Vandenberghe, R (eds) “Lasting School Improvement: exploring the process of institutionalization.” OECD, ACCO, pp 289-316 * Perry, Valery, 2007. “Accommodating diversity in schools: Lessons from Northern Ireland.” [online] available at: http://www.oscebih.org/public/default.asp?d=6&article=show&id=1980 * Senge, Peter, M. 1990. “The Fifth Discipline”. New York: Doubleday. * “The schools system in northern Ireland” [online] available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/actionnetwork/A1181819 * Whitty, Geoff, 2002. “Making sense of education policy.” Paul Chapman Publishing Read More