Learner-centered Design of Educational Materials - Assignment Example

Topic: How and why would you design learner-centred materials Introduction: The essay question presupposes a decision to pursue learner-centred model as strategy to attain educational objectives. Hence before we proceed it is best to know first the concept of learner-centred learning. To answer the question ‘how’ we will discuss the stages or process for designing learner-centred material. To answer the question ‘why’, we will discuss the importance of the learner-designed materials. Another important part of this paper is a discussion on how do learners had facilitators involved themselves in the continuing material development. Application of the model will be cited to illustrate important concepts discussed. 2.0 Analysis 2.1 What is learner-centred learning? How it is compared with other models? Students at the Centre of Their Own Learning (2001) said: Student-centred learning (SCL), or learner-centeredness, is a learning model that places the student (learner) in the centre of the learning process. In student-centred learning, students are active participants in their learning; they learn at their own pace and use their own strategies; they are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated; learning is more individualized than standardized. Student-centred learning develops learning-how-to-learn skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, and reflective thinking. Student-centred learning accounts for and adapts to different learning styles of students (National Centre for Research on Teacher Learning. 1999). Student-centred learning is distinguished from teacher-centred learning, which is characterized by the transmission of information from a knowledge expert (teacher) to a relatively passive recipient (student/learner) or consumer. (Students at the Centre of Their Own Learning (2001) Comment: Having students as active participants in their learning will really be dependent on how much students are willing to learn. If students want to proceed fast or slow, they can learn at their own pace and use their own strategies. Since motivation is a question of need it is but logical to infer that students that will decide their own level of motivations. Because of the differences in their needs, learning is also expected to be more individualized than standardized. As self-sustaining individuals, they learn to survive in their own environment hence learning skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, and reflective thinking would occupy a majority of the learning process. Because of individual differences (Moffett, & Wagner, 1992) also, the model will necessarily have to adapt to different learning styles of student. One may find out that these concepts are part of the twelve principles of student centred learning (McCombs & Whisler, 1997) 2.2 What is a learning-centred material (LCM)? LCM is part of the implementation phase for one to attain the educational objective of the learner centred learning. Materials could refer to syllabus, book, workbooks, questionnaires, pamphlets, examination materials, projects, school requirements for term papers, thesis and other writing, and all other things which may be used by the teachers to attain designed educational objective. There are other elements of a successful learning setting including the class room, the teacher, the environment but what is given emphasis here is materials. How should they be designed to attain educational objectives? In introducing a paper on ‘Development and Adaptation of Literacy and Continuing Education’ Khan (n.d.) said: Essential element of an effective learning material is that it addresses the learning needs of the users. The needs of the learners vary widely, as their social, economic, emotional and cultural needs vary. These can be effectively addressed through a learning material only when the material creates scope so that the learners can actively participate in their own learning. Such participation is best assured when their learning and living needs are integrated both in materials and in actual transaction. The challenge in organizing learning sequences around actual life concerns of the learners can only be met when there is a shared perception of the core purposes of the programme and the learning materials among the learners, the facilitators and the community. Here lies the need of learner-centred materials. After knowing the importance, we can now discuss the stages of development of material. 2.3. Stages for Development of Material To design to learner-centred material is to follow different stages. It cannot be done by short cut. As earlier posited, the learners and the facilitators (McClenney, 2006) are both part of the process. To understand more about the process, Khan (n.d.) gave four main stages in material development and these include: Planning, Text preparation, Try out, Production and Evaluation. Each stage, with a number of activities is explained by Khan (n.d.) below: 2.3.(1) Stage One: Planning At this stage, essential steps are; a. Identification of target learners, b. Assessment of learners’ needs, c. Analysis and prioritization of needs, d. Selection and sequencing of content, e. Selection of format, and f. Development of curricular unit. a. Identification of Target Learners The very first step of material development is to select or identification of target group. This is very important because each material should be suited to the needs of the learners. To identify target learners, a number of factors need to be considered. These are; 1) Level of literacy skill, 2) Area (urban, rural), 3) Age (children, adolescent, adult), and 4) Gender (male, female, both). b. Assessment of Learners’ Need The material developers based on their own experiences, interests and judgment, rather than through a systematic need assessment, design materials in many cases. Hence, though many of the material apparently look attractive and interesting, they are rarely directed and fully related to the needs and problems of the learners. To make materials effective, those should be responsive to the problems, interest and needs of the learners. Need assessment can be made through a systematic process addressing response to the following questions. 1) What are the physical, socio-cultural and economic characteristics of the learners? 2) What are the common problems of the learners and their causes? 3) What are the developmental need of the community as a whole and the learners in particular? 4) What do they want from the programme? 5) What learning style do they prefer? 6) What learning skill do they have? 7) Where, when and how will they be leaning? 8) How much time will they have available? 9) What access will they have to media/facilities? 10) What are the available resources? For collection of information, a variety of methods may be used. Some of these are Observation, Semi structured interview, Transect wants, Focus group discussion, Case studies, Social mapping, Resource mapping, Seasonal calendar, Direct matrix ranking, Livelihood analysis, Impact diagram, and so forth. Comment: There is basis to agree with Khan (n.d.) in first identifying the target learners and then followed by analysis of the Learners’ needs. For one to focus to the need there is a need to know what is that need and how to satisfy that need. This jibes with the concept of problem solving where it is said that having properly defined the problem makes one to have half-solved the problem. This stage a very important part of the process, for any mistake in analysis would lead the teacher to nowhere. c. Analysis and Prioritization of Needs After collecting information regarding community and target learners, the next step is to analyze needs and problems of the learners. One of the effective methods for analysis and prioritization of needs is New Participatory method. There are three steps involved in this process (Khan, n.d.): 1) Making a list of problems and needs and numbering them according to priority; 2) Making a list of solutions to the problems; and 3) Identify important or crucial issues as the theme of the material. (Khan, n.d.) d. Selection and Sequencing of Content An effective material demands careful selection of content. Besides time considerations, there are other factors that will determine how much information will be included in the material. What to be presented depends upon the combination of the complexity of the subject, felt need of the learners and their interest. (Khan, n.d.) Selected content areas should be consistent with the objectives of the material. Content should be integrated with the literacy levels of the learners. There are several task involved in the selection of the content (Khan, n.d.). 1) Review of own knowledge through brainstorming. 2) Discussion with experts and also with learners. 3) Reading of existing and advanced materials on the subject. 4) Transform leaning needs into theme. ) Identify topics from the theme. 6) Prioritization of topics. 7) Identify leaning points from the topics. 8) Prioritization of leaning points. (Khan, n.d.) Sequencing of content is also very important in material development. A number of principles can be followed for sequencing of content. These include; 1) Casual sequence (following a chain of cause and effect from first cause to final effect), 2) Spiral sequence keeping revising ideas looked at earlier, but in greater depth each time), 3) Chronological sequence (to discuss topics in the order in which they happen over time), and 4) Structural logic (where certain ideas or skill must be tackled earlier in order for latter ones to make sense). (Khan, n.d.) For selection and sequencing of content, an extensive discussion is required with the learners, experts, and concern persons related to the content/theme to specify the topics of the material and learning points under each topic. (Khan, n.d.) Comment: These above next two steps of prioritization and selection and sequencing of content emphasizes the limited resource of the teacher and the reality of limited time to learning in school curriculum, hence, there is need to deliver the more important ones. e. Selection of Format for Learning Material Formats of material are ways and means of facilitating learning. Before deciding the format, one has to think what the learners would most benefit from and what can be afforded or what the available skills can produce. Perhaps the most useful question to ask is what is the simplest/cheapest format that would satisfactorily meet the learners need? No single format is ideal for all purposes. However, any format used with learners active participation can be very effective. There are quite a number of formats that are commonly used for development of materials. (Khan, n.d.) (Emphasis supplied) Some of the formats are mentioned below. 1) Printed book: Booklet, Primer, Comics, and Work book 2) Printed non-book: Poster, Flip chart, Wall newspaper, Card, Folding leaflet, and Maps 3) Games and plays: Matching card, Jigsaw puzzles, and Snake and ladder 4) Audio-Visual Material: Audio cassette, CD, Radio programme, Television programme, Video cassette, and Slides 5) Other materials: Drama, Street plays, Folksong, and Puppet show (Khan, n.d.) To decide appropriate format, following aspects need to be considered. 1) Do any of the learning objectives dictate certain format? 2) Which format will be most convenient for the learners to use? 3) Are any of the formats likely to be particularly helpful for fulfilling any objectives? 4) Do the learners have necessary skills to use the specific format? 5) Is the format affordable? 6) Do the material developers have the necessary know-how to develop materials with that certain format? 7) Are the basic requirement (e.g. electricity) available in the area? (Khan, n.d.) Comment: This step again talks about the economic aspect of learning in relation to the educational objective (NTLFs Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) On College and University Teaching & Learning, 2001) and also with due participation of the learner that could enhance the selection of the proper format. The teacher is virtually made an artist in the many choices that he makes to deliver the service to the learner. f. Development of Curricular Unit Curricular unit is a framework of material to be developed. Before starting developing materials, it is better to put all planning aspects relating to development of the material in a sequenced framework. This framework would enable development of the material exactly as it has been planned and also to make an objective evaluation of the material after it was developed. (Khan, n.d.) 2.3.(2) Stage Two: Text Preparation Khan (n.d.) said that this stage of material development consists of three steps: Preparation of first draft, Illustration and layout, and Rewriting/editing of text. He explained each as follows: a. Text Writing In preparing the first draft, Khan (n.d.) said that writing text for the material is the most important part of the total process. To make a material effective, he said, its contents must have relevancy to everyday life, interest and problems. “Massage should cover total concept to make it understandable to the learners. Content should be presented following chronological, spiral and casual sequence. Also content should be arranged to facilitate gradual development of knowledge, skill, attitude and values.”, Khan (n.d.) said. (Paraphrasing made) Secondly, Khan (n.d.) said that presentation of material should be informal and that a variety of ways to present the massage should be explored. He also said that there presentation includes activities for interaction and self-learning and easy language and familiar words consistent with level of learners’ literacy skills should be used. (Paraphrasing made) Thirdly, Khan (n.d.) posited that learning material should always promote active learning and that to make learners active, there must be some scope for the learners to perform some activity during or after the leaning even take place. “Generally, all learners are expected to do something with the idea they are leaning about. If learners engage themselves in the learning activities, these help them confirm their understanding or else improve it.”, Khan said. (Paraphrasing made) b. Illustration and Layout According to Khan (n.d.), “Text preparation and illustration should proceed together. Illustrations should reflect learners’ real way of life. These must be clear, accurate, and consistent and should be related directly and meaning fully to the text. In other words, it should be helpful to clarify the text.” He also said that more space should be given to illustration than text at the beginning stage materials development and that design and layout of the materials should be attractive. (Paraphrasing made) c. Re Writing/Editing of First Draft With the first draft, re-writing is necessary to revisit the accomplishment according to Khan. The draft should be checked as a simple checklist for reviewing the draft text/illustration/presentation towards rewriting /editing is provided to check: (1) Whether the material developed according to the aim and objectives; Whether the content, topics and learning points have consistency with the Objectives should be checked. Other questions include: Are all the activities and/or self-tests are worthwhile, relevant and practicable? Is presentation plain and simple? Does it avoid formal writing style resembling school textbook? Does it use variety of ways to present the massage? (Khan, n.d.) (Paraphrasing made) 2.3.(3) Stage Three: Try Out Khan (n.d.) explained this stage saying: Activities at this stage of materials development are preparation of tools; try out of materials in the field, compilation/analysis of data and revision of materials. Field trial of materials is an important stage in the development process. It is required to ensure the suitability of the materials. Field test also facilitates to ensure that the materials focus on the real and immediate problems of the neo-literates and their society. Experience shows that the materials developed through field test are simple, attractive and interesting. Comment: There is need at this point to determine whether the steps and contents in the materials have been drawn properly, hence the field test. This also includes preparation by the planners, materials developers, and facilitators which must take into consideration. This is some sort of a feedback mechanism which is an essential part of the process. This should be made clear since a learner-centred model is akin to collaborative (Panitz, n.d.) and participatory type of learning (Roda, C., n.d.). 2.3. (4) Stage Four: Production and Evaluation “Once the materials are field tested and revised the next step is production. Depending on the format of the material, production plan varies. Quantity of production again depends on the volume to be used and nature of use. For print materials, printing is the final stage of production.” Khan (n.d.) explained. Further, he said: Evaluation is also considered as an integral part of material development. Materials once developed can not be taken final once for all. It needs continuous assessment of effectiveness, particularly from the perspectives of learners’ needs and curriculum objectives. Subsequent editions of the materials are modified accordingly. Evaluation of materials at intervals would facilitate constant updating of those and making those suitable to the leaning needs of the neo-literates. Evaluation can be made on continuous basis and also at the end of the programme in which the materials have been used. Comment: Evaluation is just related to continuing analysis and updating of the material. Since to evaluate is to measure it is not surprising to cover both quantitative and qualitative aspects. As explained by Khan (n.d.) quantitative factors may cover number of materials supplied, frequency of supply, cost, usage, agencies involved in delivery, etc. He however said: “The more important one is qualitative assessment about acceptability of the materials, getting users’ reactions about tile content, format, role of facilitator, availability of supportive materials, etc. Evaluation findings should be summed up specifically recommending areas of change in the materials development and dissemination process.” 3. How to involve Learners and Facilitators in Development of Materials Khan (n.d.) admitted that a number of areas have been specifically identified where the learners and facilitators can contribute actively. Similar he argued that contribution can made by learners in developing new materials to suit their needs. “For development of new materials, the learners and facilitators can significantly contribute in accumulating themes, preparing texts, suggesting illustrations and format of the materials from their living experience,” he said. He explained each as follows: (1) Accumulating Themes The learners know better their current needs that led them to identify topics. From a set topic, they can generate ideas from their own thoughts and experiences. The facilitators can join in the process by reinforcing discussions in generating ideas as well as listing those on a paper. The learners and facilitators can work together to classify the ideas basing on themes. At this stage, the facilitator encourages the learners to write or dictate as many ideas as possible without evaluating ideas. After completing the brainstorming part, then the ideas are reviewed together and selected themes are taken out to start writing covering ideas around that specific theme. Comment: This again emphasizes the predominantly collaborative characteristic of LCM where there is continues interaction between the leaner and the facilitator and since learning is focused on the learner, it is but expected that the latter’s changing needs must be recognized and reflected. ] (2) Preparing Texts The learners can develop their own texts based on the themes/topics of their choice. With limited writing ski1ls, they can produce newsletter covering news of their village; write stories from their own experiences. Because of simplicity of texts and needs based contents, these writings are valuable additions to the texts to be used by the learners for their literacy practice. ….. Besides the above approach, language experience approach may also be used for involving learners in preparing texts. This approach is used to utilize learners’ speaking ability to generate stories and produce those as collection of rich experience based materials. Books or manual for skill development can be developed with wider contribution from learners, who are skilled but having limited writing ability. Under this approach, the facilitator asks the learner to share an experience, copies exactly what the learner says, reads it again to him/her and asks for correction. …By using language experience approach, these can be copied as texts for materials to be produced. (Khan, n.d.) Comment: The active participation of the learner lead even to them developing their own topics. Who could restrain them if they are advanced in their need? This in a sense could challenge the facilitator to deepen his understanding of the human person, with the latter’s changing needs so as to respond effectively in the design of development of the materials. (3) Making and Recommending Illustrations and Format Khan (n.d.) said: “Like illustration, the learners can recommend suitability of the format of a material. The format should always be user-friendly and it is the learners who are the best judge to say whether it is so. Particularly during field trial of material, the opinion of learners regarding the format becomes very useful. They can make the observations from the perspective of handling, usefulness and communication of themes.” Comment: The extent of participation of the learner makes the teacher under as in reality a facilitator under the concept of LCM. Hence, we see the contrast of teacher-centred (Educationallycorrect.com, 2003) and LCM more in this part of the process. 4. Conclusion and Recommendation 4.1 Conclusion The design of learner-designed material by the teacher will eventually lead him to a facilitator. But there are stages that the teacher will have really to knowledgeable and prepared about. That is in the area of need analysis of the learners and the balancing act he must do with due consideration to relevance of the materials to the educational objective , which must also be properly defined and understood by the teacher in order to achieve the challenging task of designing materials for learning. As concluded by Khan (n.d.): “It is not the contents only; the process of leaning is equally important in achieving learning objectives. Since learning does not take place through passive participation, in course of selection of contents and determination of the process, the learners should have active role. That’s how only a learner centred learning can be ensured.’ 4.2 Recommendation: The teacher should realize his or her role in LCM. It is not that easy. It is challenging. However, the reward aside from meeting the educational objectives is a more rewarding experience in terms of more motivated students and better social interaction because of active participation of the students in the design and development of the material. Bibliography: 1. Educationallycorrect.com (2003), glossary, {www document} URL http://www.educationallycorrect.com/Articles/glossary.htm 2. Khan, S. (n.d.), Development and Adaptation of Literacy and Continuing Education Materials, {www document} URL http://www.accu.or.jp/litdbase/pub/dlperson/pdf0106/rpp05.pdf 3. McClenney, K. (2006), Learning From the Learning Colleges: Lessons From the Journey, , {www document} URL http://www.league.org/league/projects/lcp/lessons_learned.htm 4. McCombs, B. L., & Whisler, J. S. (1997). The learner-centered classroom and school. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 5. Moffett, J., & Wagner, B. J. (1992). Student-centered language arts, K-12. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers Heinemann. 6. National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. (1999). Learner-centered classrooms, problem based learning and the construction of understanding and meaning. {www document} URL http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc3learn.htm 7. NTLFs Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) On College And University Teaching & Learning, (2001), {www document} URL http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/faq/bl-ntlf.htm 8. Panitz, T. (n.d.) Collaborative Versus Cooperative Learning- A Comparison Of The Two Concepts Which Will Help Us Understand The Underlying Nature Of Interactive Learning , {www document} URL < http://home.capecod.net/~tpanitz/tedsarticles/coopdefinition.htm> 9. Roda, C. (n.d.), Participatory System Design As A Tool For Learning, {www document} URL http://ac.aup.fr/~croda/publications/Roda_Celda04_FinalREVISED.pdf 10. Students at the Centre of Their Own Learning (2001), {www document} URL http://www.intime.uni.edu/model/center_of_learning_files/definition.html Read More