Gaps in academic achievement - Research Paper Example

Gaps in academic achievement Introduction With the current effort towards education reforms, there is growing scholarly consensus that the existing gap in academic achievement could be remedied by addressing educational inequalities beyond the boundaries of curriculum and pedagogy. The case of Paul VI Catholic High School suggests that African American students are not attaining on standardized tests at a level similar to the achievement by other racial demographics. The problem of gaps in academic achievement is long-running and efforts to address these gaps have continued for years. Various strategies have been undertaken such as increasing educational funding and legislative amendments. Programs such as the No Child Left Behind Act and the Head Start were enacted with the objective of narrowing the achievement gap. These programs aim to improve results, and are explicitly discussed in many scholarly debates on race, class and competition. The current paper leverages on a critical analysis of existing literature to underpin the link between achievement gaps in tests scores and race. The emerging facts and evidences provides the basis for generalization of the racial issues as reflected in the apprehension that Paul VI’s African American (Black) student population is not achieving on standardized tests at the same level as other racial demographics. The paper holds the argument that family and school environments contribute to the achievement gap between black and white students at the Paul VI Catholic High School. A critical investigation of existing literature reveals that the problem of educational gap presents numerous challenges to policy-makers. Many studies have examined the achievement gap between black and white students, the contributing factors and the underlying implications. The growing consensus that the achievement gap between black and white students persists even after controlling for various observable characteristics, has been contested. In a survey that used the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten cohort (ECLS-K), the latest data administered by the Education Department, Fryer and Levitt demonstrated that the achievement gap between black and white students can be eliminated by controlling for observable characteristics of the environment and school (Fryer and Levitt, 2004). The researchers asserted that the gap between black and white students widens once students enter school (Fryer and Levitt, 2004). The author’s main argument is that black student’s underachievement is due to attending lower quality schools. The study is robust and compares results obtained in previous randomized studies with nonrandom sample frames. In a study that examined the extent to which family wealth affected test scores among young black and white students, Conley and Yeung (2008) found little evidence that the achievement gap between black and white students could be explained by wealth disparity. The researchers used data from PSID, a longitudinal study using a sample size of 5,000 participants (Conley and Yeung, 2008). The study extended previous analyses to construct independent tests and measure the effects of wealth disparity and implications on the test score gap (Conley and Yeung, 2008). The researchers employed regression analysis to examine the relationship between family wealth and children’s test scores. The measurement of cognitive abilities included language skills, problem-solving problems and literacy levels. The researchers used two age-standardized subscales to assess the cognitive abilities; Applied Problems (AP) and Letter-Word scores (Conley and Yeung, 2008). The study demonstrated large gaps between black and white students performance even before kindergarten level. Black students scored lower than their White counterparts in both tests (Conley and Yeung, 2008). The employment of multivariate analysis improved the robustness of the study. The analysis approach makes data visualization and interpretation easy while making it easy to understand the relationship between individual factors. The study established week evidence to suggest that family wealth mediates the achievement gap between Black and White students in test scores (Conley and Yeung, 2008). In particular, there was no direct relationship between net income and children’s test scores (Conley and Yeung, 2008). The results suggested that family wealth, especially liquid assets such as mutual funds and stocks, are strongly linked with cognitive achievement. Wealth is a major factor in the racial achievement gap. From a theoretical perspective, wealth forms an important economic capital that can be readily converted to a financial resource or other types of capital (Orr, 2003). Similarly, parental wealth is a powerful predictor of academic achievement. Parents use financial capital to help students purchase educational material and other resources. This is especially important given the escalating costs of education. Capital assets in the form of financial capital can be used to create educational opportunities (Orr, 2003). More importantly, wealth confers a sense of financial security and enables families to spend more on education. From this perspective, black students are disadvantaged and have fewer educational opportunities compared to whites (Orr, 2003). Black students have less access to high-quality schools, have limited access to educational resources and face cultural and social experiences that limit their motivation and hamper self-esteem. In particular, economic background has a strong impact on adolescent’s wellbeing and educational experiences. The achievement gap in test scores between black and white students widens significantly during later years (Orr, 2003). Conclusively, wealth is a strong predictor of academic performance, and disparity in wealth between black and white students could partly explain the achievement gap. Rumberger and Willms (1992) examined the impact of ethnic and racial segregation on the achievement gap for school in California. The researchers used data on schools, school districts and students to construct independent measures taking student-level variables and school-level variables as well as dependent measures of student achievement (Rumberger and Willms, 1992). Segregation was measured using constructs previously employed to examine residual segregation in urban areas. Subsequent segregation indices were calculated using total school enrolment (Rumberger and Willms, 1992). The researchers demonstrated that racial and ethnic segregation is rampant in California with significant differences in academic achievement levels. Although the results suggested that family and individual circumstances could be attributed t the achievement gap for Asians and Hispanics, there was no plausible explanation for black students, where the achievement gap was larger than for any other minority group. The researchers were not able to separate the effects of contexts from resources, a major challenge for those monitoring school performances (Rumberger and Willms, 1992). Despite the inherent limitations in the study, the analysis was important in underpinning the achievement gap with regard to variations in educational achievements across schools. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that schools with higher average parental background performed favorably. This suggests that efforts towards addressing segregation could help in reducing the achievement gap. Singham (1998) argues that the educational achievement gap is a complex problem with rooted ethnic relationships and characteristics as well as varying social, political and economic implications. Singham (1998) examined the achievement gap between black and white students using liberal and conservative theoretical constructs. The research is particularly important given the diverse views expressed about student achievement and related issues of racial inequalities. A liberal view of the educational achievement gap between black and white students is embedded in economic disparities and their impact on academic performance (Singham, 1998). Liberal arguments trace academic underachievement back to the oppression blacks suffered during the historical slavery. These arguments are embedded in the socioeconomic model. On the other hand, conservatives have a different view about the educational achievement gap. Conservatives argue that the underperformance of black students could not be explained by economic factor (Singham, 1998). These arguments are based on the evidence that although the era of slavery affected black students, segregation-related inequalities have been negated via constitutional amendments enacted many years ago (Singham, 1998). Conservatives belief that lack of parenting skills, peer pressure, crime and unstable family contribute to the poor performance of black students compared with other racial groups (Singham, 1998). The article provides a comprehensive view of the problem and articulates the varying political, social and cultural arguments about racial factors and their impact on educational achievement. In a cohort empirical study that examined the effects of school and neighborhood segregation on the relative SAT scores of black students, Card and Rothstein (2007) found strong evidence suggesting strong relationship between the degree of segregation and black students relative scores. The researchers used detailed control models including family backgrounds of participants, city level controls for income, religion and racial composition as well as school-level controls. The study employed large data samples across different metropolitan areas. The researchers matched individual test-taker’s characteristics to information related to the racial composition of their schools. The study revealed that segregation in school and neighborhood contexts has negative effects on the academic performance of black students (Card and Rothstein, 2007). Although the study did not establish the precise causal effects, it became clear that neighborhood composition has a bigger impact compared to school composition (Card and Rothstein, 2007). A critical investigation of the study reveals that confounding influences could present challenges in interpreting the evidences and findings, a major weakness. For instance, there are concerns that unobserved differences in the latent ability of Black students as compared to White students could confound the research findings (Card and Rothstein, 2007). However, this limitation was effectively addressed by increasing the flexibility of the study via including controls for observable differences in family characteristics. Nevertheless, the study provided strong evidence that racial segregation contributes to the Black-White test score gap. Hanushek and Rivkin examined the impact of school quality to the racial achievement gap. The researchers used data from the Texas Schools Project (TSP) panel data and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey (ECLS). The study results suggest that school quality determines educational achievement (Hanushek and Rivkin, 2006). However, the implications of the deductions are uncertain for policy-makers. On the other hand, Hauser (1996) argues that intelligence quotient (IQ) alone cannot account for the variability in adult economic and social success. Any inherent IQ differentials between Blacks and Whites may not explain the achievement gap (Hauser, 1996). Negative racial peer pressure has been thought to be a major factor in explaining the under achievement of black students compared to white students. Various studies have questioned the theory that racial peer pressure and negative influence explain achievement disparities between black students and other racial groups. A qualitative study by Castellino et al (2005) demonstrated that racial pressure with regard to academic achievement is not common in many secondary public schools, and that black adolescents are motivated and oriented to achieve and succeed in school. The researcher challenged the predominant notion, that ‘acting white’ has led many black students to underachieve in school. On the contrary, Castellino et al (2005) opined that black students who avoided advanced courses were afraid they will not perform well academically, and that such decisions are based on own-concerns. The validity of the findings is strengthened by use of informative primary data and critical review of existing evidences. In particular, the study disputes that the ‘burden of acting white’ explains the underperformance of black students. Further, the study suggests the need for comprehensive efforts to address the achievement gap. Various recommendations have been made on how best to narrow the achievement gap. With regard to efforts towards addressing segregation factors, it is important to understand the behavioral context of the problem. Cooley (2010) asserts that students form race-based reference groups within classrooms. Black students appear to conform only to black peer achievement and vice versa (Cooley, 2010). Cooley’s study developed a new approach to underpinning the contribution of peer behavior on educational achievement. A critical analysis of existing literature shows little attention and use of behavioral models incorporating peer spillovers. The strength of the article is based on its ability to estimate and identify such behavioral peer spillovers. To achieve this purpose, Cooley constructed a theoretical framework where students make behavioral choices and undertake those choices via peer pressure or by discouragement effects (Cooley, 2010). The model is especially helpful in clarifying the simulations problem of exogenous influencers and how they influence student choices. The researcher used administrative data for North Carolina public schools from 1996 to 2003. Cooley demonstrated new evidence suggesting that achievement in same-race peers are strong determinants of student achievement (Cooley, 2010). The study is therefore important in explaining the mechanism via which desegregation of peers could help address the achievement gap. However, the study did not clarify if the achievement gap could be narrowed by resource redistribution or via peer reallocation. Future research should focus on clarifying the complex question and helping policy makers make informed decisions on the issue. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) presents one of the potentially effective tools for addressing the widening achievement gap (Giroux and Schmidt, 2004). The NCLB aims at promoting impartiality and strengthening social citizenship. However, the existing education framework is more concerned about the marketplace importance (Giroux and Schmidt, 2003). The problem with market values is that they foster competitive individualism as teachers strive to receive requisite rewards, subjecting students to competitive ethics and raising many discriminatory questions (Giroux and Schmidt, 2004). Based on these arguments, the NCLB has failed to meet its purpose. On the contrary, the NCLB agenda for education has created further problems including emerging controversies on assessments (Giroux and Schmidt, 2004). Conclusion and Recommendations A critical analysis of existing literature suggests that the achievement gap exposed at Paul VI Catholic High School is not new or unique. Although numerous efforts have been undertaken towards narrowing the achievement gap between black and white students, the Paul VI’s case suggests that the problem is still rampant in many public schools. More importantly, the educational achievement gap is a complex problem rooted in ethnic characteristics and relationships. Socioeconomic factors and racial segregation exacerbate educational inequalities and could partly explain the widening achievement gap. Further, school quality is a powerful determinant of student’s academic performance and educational achievement. On the other hand, the notion that underachievement of black students is due to the ‘burden of acting white’, fails to give a plausible explanation of the problem. Other explanations such as IQ differentials between Whites and Blacks, and poor parentage skills among black parents are inconsistent and pessimistic. Based on these arguments, further efforts towards narrowing the achievement gap must address the root cause of the problem. We recommend accurate compilation of relevant data to help policy-makers and researchers to understand the problem in its entirety. The data should include but limited to information on GPA’s, standardized test scores and placement test scores. Other recommendations include increasing the number of black teachers and continuous review of the current SAT prep and instructional strategies. References Card, D. & Rothstein, J. (2007). Racial Segregation and the Black-White Test Score Gap. University of California Berkeley, California. Castellino, D. R., Darity, W., & Tyson, K. (2005). It’s not “a black thing”: Understanding the burden of acting white and other dilemmas of high achievement. American Sociological Review, 70 (4): 582-605. Conley, D., & Yeung, W. J. (2008). Black – White achievement gap and family wealth. Child Development, 79, (2): 303-324. Cooley, J. (2010). Desegregation and the achievement gap: Do diverse peers help? Duke University, Durham, NC. Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2004). Understanding the black-white test score gap in the first two years of school. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 77, (2): 447-464. Giroux, H. A., & Schmidt, M. (2004). Closing the achievement gap: A metaphor for children left behind. Journal of Educational Change, vol. 5: 213-228. Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2006). School quality and the black-white achievement gap (Working Paper 12651). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Hauser, R. M. (1996). Trends in black-white test score differentials: I. Uses and misuses of NAEP/SAT data (CDE Working Paper No. 96-29). Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Orr, A. J. (2003). Black-White Differences in Achievement: The Importance of Wealth. Sociology of Education, vol. 76: 281-304. Rumberger, R. W., & Willms, J. D. (1992). The impact of racial and ethnic segregation on the achievement gap in California high schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14, (4): 377-396. Singham, M. (1998). The canary in the mine: The achievement gap between black and white students. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, (1): 8-15. Read More