Factors Affecting a Childs Learning - Essay Example

Factors Affecting a Child’s Learning Table of Content I. Introduction …………………………………………………………… 3 II. Factors Affecting a Child’s Learning in aClassroom Setting ……….... 5 III. Piaget’s theory of childhood development …………………………….. 6 IV. Perry’s Theory on Epistemological Beliefs ……………………………. 7 V. Other Approaches to Teaching and Learning ………………………….. 9 VI. Kagan Structures: Cooperative Learning …………………………......... 10 a. Factors that Contributes to Achievement Effects in Cooperative Learning …………………………………………… 12 VII. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………... 13 References ………………………………………………………………… 15 – 18 Introduction There are a lot of internal and external factors that could affect the capacity of a child to learn. In general, parents are responsible in the learning capacity of a child. (Casey, 2007) This is a widely acceptable fact since majority of the child’s learning foundation is developed at home. (Mortimer, 2007) As a child grows older, external influences would start to affect the child’s learning. The child starts to attend school wherein the teaching responsibility is transferred to the teachers. Teaching is considered as both a science and an art of employing strategies, schemes, and different tactics to enhance the learning and development of the students. Since teachers are the front-liners in proving a quality education for each the students, he/she must be able to implement strategies based on theories that are effective in moulding the mental development of the child. Teachers must be familiar with different factors that could affect the learning and the overall school performances of the students. (Allwright, 1995) Upon knowing certain issues that hinders a child’s learning, the teacher could easily adopt and apply different teaching techniques and strategies in order to motivate and encourage the student to learn more. Some techniques can be effective in one situation but ineffective with another. Therefore, it is important for every teacher to continuously search for new perspective in teaching. (Doyle, 1985) In line with a child’s learning, this paper will focus on Piaget’s theory of childhood development (Phillips, 1981), Perry’s theory of development of college students (Perry, 1981); and Kogan’s structures on cooperative learning (Kagan, 1994) which focuses on how cooperative learning strategy could be used in relation to teachings within ‘mixed-ability’ classes. Piaget’s and Perry’s theory are complementary with one another since both focus on different aspects of learning and development. Piaget’s theory is useful in guiding the teacher about a child’s outlook and perception about the things around him as he grows older. Teachers should consider the age bracket of the child when teaching. Nursery teachers should be aware that children between ages of two to seven are under the pre-operational stage and intuitive stage. (Phillips, 1981) It means that children between these age brackets normally have a lot of questions about anything around him. Parents and teachers at this point should have the patience in answering their inquiries as this could affect the future learning ability of the child. (Hurrell, 2007) Refusing to answer the child’s question could make him hesitant to ask future questions. Thus, the child’s ability to learn is being hampered. Perry’s theory includes the different ways of getting knowledge. The theory of Perry serves as guidelines for teachers to have an idea on the best way a student could acquire knowledge. Based on the theory of Perry, ‘constructed knowing’ is the highest form of getting knowledge. (Golderger, 1996) Therefore, teachers should search for ways on how to train and set the mind of the students to adopt with the techniques on the use of ‘constructed knowing’ for future independent learning and development. The ability of children to acquire a constructive knowledge makes them more successful learners than the other students. Factors Affecting a Child’s Learning in a Classroom Setting According to Barbara McCombs, “almost everything that teachers do in the classroom has a either positive or negative motivational influence on the students.” (Kelly, 2006) When teaching a lesson, the teacher has to consider the factors such as the size of the classroom or the number of students enrolled in the class, the type of learning materials, the depth of the subject matter, and the time allocated for the lesson. The 2001 Scottish School Census reported that the average size of a composite class for primary schools should be 20.6 pupils in each class. It is equally important that these students should belong to the same age. (Wilson, 2003) Teachers interact more effectively with students in smaller classes and it takes a lesser time to manage each student’s routines. (Hargreaves, et al., 1997) Interaction between teachers and the students are important to children in kindergarten up to the third grade. It gives the teacher more time to focus of a child’s reading, writing, and math performance at an early stage of education. Students would carry this educational practice as they go through their remaining academic careers. (Hargreaves, et al., 1997) Therefore, the long-term benefit of reducing classroom students is to make each student’s learning capabilities more successful. Teachers should choose suitable learning materials based on the student-centred approach and other factors such as age, depth of the subject matter, students capacity to absorb the lecture, time frame, etc. For example: a shorter period of interactive teaching is more effective than giving a long-hour traditional lecture in nursery class. This is based on the facts that children between ages 3 to 7 are generally inquisitive and has a short span of attention. (Gebolys, 2003) Piaget’s theory of childhood development According to Piaget’s theory, a child’s intellectual development occurs in four distinct periods or stages. The four stages in Piaget’s theory includes: Sensorimotor period, pre-operational period, intuitive phase, the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage. (Phillips, 1981) Children progress through these four stages but at different rates. This is one reason why some child learns faster than the other children. Among the four stages, the formal operational stage is the best stage for learning because the child has already developed the ability to think about abstract concepts. It means that the child, as a student, could already think logically, conduct a deductive reasoning, and create a systematic planning which is necessary for better learning performance. (Van Wagner, 2007) It may start to develop as early as ages eleven or twelve up to adulthood. Sometimes, it takes more time for a person to reach this stage. At this point, the child can already perform abstract thinking. He can start to become inventive with ideas and formulate some hypotheses without manipulating concrete objects. Thus, the child could test hypotheses mentally. (Phillips, 1981) According to Piaget, the concrete operational stage ends at age eleven or twelve. However, there is a current estimate that around 30 to 60% of adults remains in the concrete operational stage. (Pintrich, 1990) This is one of the factors why there are many college students who are still considered as concrete operational thinkers. Perhaps their mental or emotional development develops slower than the other students. Piaget’s theory of childhood development can be used by teachers as a guide in understanding the learning capacity of each child as they grow from being an infant into a young adult. This will encourage the teacher to have more patience in dealing with the children ages 3 – 7 while building the child’s learning capabilities for future development. Over the years, Piaget’s theory has been partly modified. (Kurfiss, 1988) The role of knowledge in learning is the main point of disagreements in Piaget’s theory. Based on a more recent research, both the general problem-solving skills and specific knowledge are necessary in solving a problem. (Kurfiss, 1988) Perry’s Theory on Epistemological Beliefs There are many student teachers’ beliefs that are not being addressed according to the teacher education programmes. (Nespor, 1987) Based on research studies that were done in the past, it is important to take into consideration the pre-service teachers’ beliefs particularly the epistemological beliefs i in teaching education since these beliefs has a big influence over the teaching practices of the teachers inside the classroom. (Wilson, 1990; Richardson et al., 1991) Epistemological beliefs often reflect a person’s point-of-view with regards to what ‘knowledge’ is and how it can be gained. It is considered as a degree of certainty which has limits and criteria to follow when it comes to determining knowledge. (Perry, 1981) The five stages that lead to epistemological beliefs are: Silence, Receiving Knowledge, Subjective Knowing, Procedural Knowing, and Constructed Knowing. (Golderger, 1996) Goldberger (1996), coming from a cultural perspectives, described silence as an adaptive way of knowing. Silence could mean two things. A foreigner chose to be silence as a way of respect. In the case of epistemological beliefs, Goldberger uses the term ‘silence’ indicating that those people who belongs to an oppressed group are forced to be voiceless; not that they want to keep silent. Teachers can easily detect such students by keen observation combined with analyzing the behaviour of the students. In a class, there will always be the best achiever and the lowest achiever kind of students. It is unavoidable that there will also be a group of bully students and the victim. Victim of bully students may tend to isolate themselves and become silent. This kind of attitude most often makes the student a less successful learner. Receiving knowledge is dualistic. (Golderger, 1996) It means that a student can learn given that a teacher is present to teach him something new. Without the teacher, the student will not learn. Learners that are used to receiving knowledge do not believe in their own ability to learn new things on their own. They believe that authorities have all the answers to their questions. Therefore, the quality of the students’ learning highly depends on the quality of teaching that is delivered by the teacher. Subjective knowledge comes from an inner voice, intuitive ways of knowing, or ‘gut feel’. (Belenky et al., 1986) The student does not have to totally rely on a teacher in order to learn. Instead, the student uses his ‘gut feel’ to guide him on what is right from wrong. Lastly, the constructed knowing includes both the integration of a procedural and subjective, or a mixture of rational and emotional knowledge. A successful learner has usually reached the constructed knowing. At this stage, the child is able to learn new things on his own without the need of any guidance. According to Baxter Magolda (1993) and Belenky et al. (1986), these stages of epistemological development undergo changes in terms of reflective thinking and complexity overtime. For example: Perry’s theory (1981) of receiving knowledge was modified by Baxter (1993) and called it as absolute knowledge; whereas Perry’s subjective knowing is similar to Baxter’s transitional. It is similarly important for teachers to consider helping the students to reflect on and be aware of a lot of learning perspectives. This practice could be useful in preparing the teacher for an increase in complex teaching and learning environments. However, Baxter (1988) mentioned that such changes could be a slow process. Wilson (1990) added that for this practice to materialize is a difficult task. Teaching programmes should aim at enhancing the learning of the students. Lyons (1990) agrees with this statement. According to Lyons, ‘Teaching the way of knowing ought to be a part of every teacher’s education programmes.’ (Lyons, 1990) Also, teachers should model an active construction in teaching; take note that communication to learning requires a lot of possible struggle and conflicts such as emotional barriers; and be able to facilitate linking theories with each student prior to extending some knowledge to them. Other Approaches to Teaching and Learning Teaching must aim to facilitate a child’s learning. Therefore, it is important for the teacher to consider the learner’s perspectives. According to Ramsden, “the best approach to improving one’s teachings is by studying students’ learning.” (Ramsden, 1992) ‘Teaching-learning transaction’ means that the teacher should be open to the students’ opinion. Through constant communication with the students, the door for a better learning is opened. Giving assessment at the end of each class is considered as the most significant single influence on students’ learning. (Ramsden, 1988) For example: A 6th grade school teacher assigns the students to read the book of ‘Harry Potter’ and requires each student to submit a book review based on a set of guidelines provided. Perhaps two weeks before the end of the semester, the teacher would collect the book review from the students as part of the completion for the English course taken. Based on the quality of the submitted paper, the teacher could easily determine whether the student fully understands their assignment or whether the student is able to follow the correct guidelines for the paper. (Teachers, 2003) Assessment can be in a form of graded recitation, written exam, term papers, etc. Any kind of assessment method can be used in determining how the students approach learning. Upon giving an assessment of any kind, the teacher should always consider the time-frame given to the students in order to reflect on the lessons. In other words, workload is directly related to how students approach and study for exams. (Ramsden, 1992) For example, giving a short quiz at the end of the class gauges the students’ ability to recall the class discussion. Giving a long quiz without a clear discussion or right after a class discussion is not recommended since it does not allow the students to reflect upon and process the content of the lecture. Thus, the student would only rely on the surface approach to learning. Kagan Structures: Cooperative Learning According to Kagan, cooperative learning is a teaching arrangement which refers to a small and heterogeneous groups of students that works together to achieve a common goal. (Kagan, 1994) Normally, students work together to learn and become responsible for their own learning and their team-mates’ learning. Cooperative learning can be used as a successful teaching strategy at all levels. It has been proven effective among the pre-school students up to students under post secondary level. Cooperative learning theories is considered as a peer-centred strategy that promotes academic achievement and builds-up positive social relationships. (Sapon-Shevin, 1994) Among the four basic elements of cooperative learning are: Positive Interdependenceii, Individual Accountabilityiii, Equal Participationiv, and Simultaneous Interactionv. Either one or a combination of these elements can be adopted depending on the type of learning activity the teacher wants to use. Cooperative learning strategies are all based on theory that has been validated by repeated research. (Felder, R.) This is one major reason for this strategy to be widely used. Another reason is because teachers can easily use this teaching method according to their personal philosophies. Cooperative learning is very important since it encourages students to support each other as a team. The most commonly used strategy in a cooperative learning is ‘grouping.’ In a group of students with different achievement levels and are belonging to different ethnic diversity normally improves cross-race and cross-sex relationship and integration. Most of the time, a random interest teams or sometimes a team with special interests is formed in order to meet a specific need of the students and to maximize the students’ talents. (Kagan, 1994) At a young age, students can learn and employ group related social skills, improve each student’s communication skills, and inter-relational skills by going through the process of cooperative learning. This method basically prepares the student for future endeavours. Therefore, it follows that a cooperative learning must be applied in school as a logical teaching method. A compilation of research on cooperative learning proves that this type of learning strategy improves the achievement of the students including their interpersonal relationship skills. Based on the 67 tests that was conducted on the ‘achievement effects’ which have resulted from the application of cooperative learning shows that 61% has improved their achievements rather than with the use of a traditional approach on control groups. The positive result includes earning a better grade in all major subjects regardless of whether the students came from urban, rural, or suburban schools. The same effects were found in students who are high, average, and low achievers. (Slavin, 1991) Johnson & Johnson also conducted several tests and reported that the use of cooperative learning method has a better result than the use of individualistic and/or competitive methods of learning. (Johnson & Johnson et al., 2000) Factors that Contributes to Achievement Effects in Cooperative Learning There are two factors that contribute to the achievement effects of cooperative learning. These are: group goals and individual accountability. In a lot of cases, giving incentives to the students to perform well in a given task motivates them to strive harder. Such incentives trigger them to help one another and to motivate each other in giving their best shot. There are strong evidences that giving rewards to the team and group graded projects are the best way and has been a very successful motivational strategy. (Slavin, 1995) However, there are also some critics with regards to group work or group grades. Some says that team rewards encourages other or allow other students not to participate up to the most of his / her ability. (Joyce, 1999) Others say that group grades do not emphasize the importance of perseverance, personal ability, and hard work. (Kagan, 1995) Conclusion It is the job of the teacher to diagnose the class environment and apply the best and effective classroom management in each class. Teachers need to be extra careful and sensitive enough when dealing with personal, social, cultural, or group problems of the students. The ability of the teacher to set a boundary with the students helps preserve the teachers’ authority over the students. Thus, the teacher maintains the respect he/she gets from the students. In order for the teacher to be effective in motivating the students, the first thing teachers need to do is to find out the root cause of the student’s misbehavior and/or problem. Once the teacher is able to identify the student’s problem, his/her mistaken goals, his/her family background, negative childhood experiences, and other related facts; it will be easier for the mentor to find a solution to fix the major cause of the problem. Traditional way of teaching has become inadequate in teaching-and-learning environment today. Changes have been a vital element that is constantly present in the world we live in. Therefore, to be an effective teacher or a competitive learner, one has to be open and be able to adopt with these changes. Now a days, teachers and lecturers must consider the social and cultural dimensions of teaching and learning. Since we are entering a world of globalization, each student must be comfortable with interracial development, teamwork, and communication skills. Applying Kagan’s structure on Cooperative Learning would help students develop the social and cultural dimension of learning. Other theories such as Piaget’s theory of childhood development and Perry’s Theory on Epistemological Beliefs should also be applied in teaching and learning process. Piaget’s theory of childhood development serves as guidance in understanding the learning development of a child since birth up to adolescence while Perry’s Theory on Epistemological Beliefs distinguishes the levels of learning. Among the five stages of epistemological beliefs, developing the practice of ‘Constructed Knowing’ is the best choice since it allows the student to solve a problem or make decisions by integrating his/her rational and emotional knowledge. These theories are subject to further modifications overtime. Therefore, it is the responsibility of every teacher to update his / her gained knowledge with regards to teaching and learning theories, methods, and strategies. ***End *** References: 1 Allwright, D. (1995) ‘Contextual Factors in Classroom Language Learning: An Overview’ Summer Institute in English and Applied Linguistics, University of Cambridge, July 1995 Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/ > 2 Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R. and Tarule, J.M. (1986) ‘Women’s Ways of Knowing: the Development of Self, Voice, and Mind’ New York, Basic Books. 3 Casey, B. (2007) ‘Education & General Issues: Baseline Assessment – Be a part of that journey of discovery… You will create a confident learner’ Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://www.bbc.co.uk/ > 4 Doyle, W. (1985) ‘Effective Teaching and the Concept of the Master Teacher’ Elementary School Journal, September, 1985. 5 Felder, R. ‘Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education’ Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < www.ncsu.edu/ > 6 Gebolys, D. (2003) ‘Learning Benchmarks: State Pushes Academic Goals for Preschools’ The Columbus Dispatch Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://libpub.dispatch.com/ > 7 Golderger, N.R. (1996) ‘Cultural Imperatives and Diversity in Ways of Knowing’ in Golderger, N., Tarule, J., Clinchy, B., and Belenky, M. (Eds) Knowledge, Difference and Power. pp. 335 – 371 (New York, BasicBooks). 8 Hargreaves, L., Galton, M., and Pell, A. (1997) ‘The Effects of Major Changes in Class Size on Teacher-Pupil Interaction in Elementary School Classes in England: Does Research Merely Confirm the Obvious?’ March 1997 ED 409 123. Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://ol.scc.spokane.edu/ > 9 Hurrell, S. (2007) ‘Knowledge and Understanding of the World: How Things Change – The Process of Growth within their own bodies fascinates little ones’’ Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://www.bbc.co.uk/ > 10 Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., & Stanne, M.B. (2000) ‘Cooperative Learning Methods: A Meta-analysis’ Retrieved: February 20, 2007 < http://www.clcrc.com/ > 11 Joyce, W.B. (1999) ‘On the Free-rider Problem in Cooperative Learning’ Journal of Education for Business, 74, 271 – 274. 12 Kagan, S. (1994) ‘Cooperative Learning’ San Clemente, California: Kagan Publishing. February 20, 2007 < http://www.kaganonline.com/ > 13 Kagan, S. (1995) ‘Group Grades Miss the Mark’ Educational Leadership, 52, 68 – 72. 14 Kelly, M. ‘The Art and Craft of Motivating Students’ About: Secondary School Educators. February 20, 2007 < http://712educators.about.com/ > motivation 15 Kurfiss, J.G. (1988) ‘Critical Thinking: Theory, Research, Practice, and Possibilities’ ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 2 Association for the Study of Higher Education, Washington, DC. 16 Lyons, N. (1990) ‘Dilemmas of Knowing: Ethical and Epistemological Dimensions of Teacher’s Work and Development’ Harvard Educational Review, 60 (2), pp. 159 – 180. 17 Mortimer, H. (2007) ‘Personal and Social Development: Learning to Learn – Step-by-step you can encourage them to manage more on their own’ Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://www.bbc.co.uk/ > 18 Nespor, J.K. (1987) ‘The Role of Beliefs in the Practice of Teaching’ Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19(4), pp. 317 – 328. 19 Perry, W.G. (1981) ‘Cognitive and Ethical Growth: The making of meaning’ in A.W.C. (Ed.). The Modern American College. pp. 76 – 116 (San Francisco, Jossey-Boss) 20 Phillips, J.L., Jr. (1981) ‘Piaget’s Theory: A Primer’ W.H. Freeman: San Francisco. 21 Pintrich, P.R. (1990) ‘Implication of Psychological Research on Student Learning and College Teaching for Teacher Education’ in W.R. Houston, M.Haberman, and J.Sikula (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, MacMillan, New York, 926 – 857, 1990. 22 Ramsden, P. (1988). ‘Studying Learning: Improving Teaching’ In P. Ramsden Ed., Improving Learning: New Perspectives. London: Kogan Page. 23 Ramsden, P. (1992). ‘Learning to teach in higher education’ London: Routledge. 24 Richardson, V.A., Anders, P.T., Idwell, D., and Lloyd, C. (1991) ‘The Relationship between Teacher’ beliefs and Practices in Reading Comprehension Instruction’ American Educational Research Journal, 28 (3), pp. 559 – 586. 24 Sapon-Shevin, M. (1994) ‘Cooperative Learning and Middle Schools: What would it take to really do it right?’ Theory Into Practice, 33, 183 – 190. 26 Slavin, R.E. (1991) ‘Synthesis of Research on Cooperative Learning’ Educational Leadership, 48, 71 – 82. 27 Slavin, R.E. (1995) ‘Cooperative Learning’ Boston: Allyn and Bacon 28 Teachers (2003) ‘Book Review: Special Educational Needs in the Primary School by Jean Gross’ Back Issue: March 2003 Issue # 25 Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/ > 29 Van Wagner, K. (2007) ‘Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development’ About: Psychology Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < http://psychology.about.com/ > 30 Wilson, S.M. (1990) ‘The Secret Garden of Teacher Education’ Phi Delta Kappa, 72. pp. 204 – 209. 31 Wilson, V. (2003) ‘All in Together? – An Overview of the Literature on Composite Classes’ University of Glascow March 2003 Retrieved: February 21, 2007 < www.scre.ac.uk/ > Read More