Constant and Continuing Process of Learning - Essay Example

Learning Learning for human, is a constant and continuing process. It starts at birth and continues as long as one lives. The Learning process takes place at different settings, at school, at home and even at work. For an individual to learn a concept, they must not just be able to regurgitate information but to understand and apply the knowledge (Kehoe 1999). Gagne’ defined learning as, "a change in human disposition or capability that persist over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth" (qtd. from kehoe 1999). Learning could also be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or values, through study, experience, or teaching, that causes a change of behaviour that is persistent, measurable, and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or revise a prior mental construct (conceptual knowledge such as attitudes or values)(learning 2005). The Learning process mostly depends on experience and leads to long-term changes in behaviour potential. Behaviour potential designates the possible behaviour of an individual, not actual behaviour. As opposed to short-term changes in behavior potential (caused e.g. by fatigue) learning implies long-term changes. As opposed to long-term changes caused by aging and development, learning implies changes related directly to experience. Major research traditions are behaviorism, Cognitivist (psychology) and self-regulated learning (Psychology of Learning 2005). Learning has to be periodically reinforced, so that knowledge will not eventually lose in that individual (Learning 2005). Example can be seen in infants and children. Imitation of a role model is a natural mechanism for infants and children, when learning from experience. Child's play is another method for learning by the example of other children, who naturally gain satisfaction by playing the role of teacher or mentor to a less-experienced child (Learning 2005). Learning by teaching, is a method of teaching which allows teachers to share the new lesson contents and let little groups prepare their part in order to teach this contents to the rest of the class (Learning 2005). In education and psychology, learning theories help teachers understand the process of learning. There are two main perspectives in learning theories, constructivism and behaviorism (Learning Theory 2005). Other informal theories of education deal with more sensible components of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers agree with the latter (Learning Theory 2005). Other concerns are the reasons of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off from the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self-taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self-taught (Learning Theory 2005). According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self-taught, and classrooms should be dissolved because they do not fit the ideal representation of self-learning. Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book versus real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools essentially lacking in real-world experience learning (Learning Theory 2005). Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the principle that, by reflecting on experiences, a person can construct his own knowledge of the world in which he lives. Each person generates his own "rules" and "mental models," which he will use to comprehend his experiences. Learning then become a process of adjusting mental models to accommodate new experiences (Constructivism 2001). Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences" (Ormrod 2003, p. 227). Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context (Learning Theory 2005). Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Generative Learning, Cognitive Apprenticeship, Problem-based learning, Discovery Learning, situated learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure (Learning Theory 2005). The methods of constructivism emphasise a person’s ability to solve real-life, practical problems. In school, Students typically work in cooperative groups rather than individually; they tend to focus on projects that require solutions to problems rather than on instructional sequences that require learning of certain content skills (Conway 1997). The job of the teacher in constructivist models is to arrange for required resources and act as a guide to students while they set their own goals and 'teach themselves'(Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p. 70). However, many educational psychologists found the behavioural approach unsatisfying. In the areas of problem solving and learning strategies they became more concerned with what was unobservable - what was going on inside the brain (Conway 1997). Cognitive learning theories are another way to explain the learning process. Cognitive learning theories argue that learning is an inner process and not influenced by environment. Cognitive learning theories, "focus on explaining the development of cognitive structures, processes, and representations that mediate between instruction and learning" (qtd. from Kehoe 1999). One of the most influential cognitive theories used in educational technology is the Information Processing Theory. Information Processing Theory approach learning essentially through the understanding of memory and how to recover it (Kehoe 1999). It is not only important to understand how information is processed, but how it is accessed. In contrast, the Gestalt theory primarily focuses on the beginning stages of information processing (Kehoe 1999). The question of how do individuals describe, explain and predict learning has mystified theorist for many years. However, there are a number learning theories that could provide an explanation of the phenomena. Beginning in the late nineteenth century theorist began the study of learning (Kehoe 1999). In the article, The Conditions of Learning by Robert M. Gagne’, he writes that, "It is likely that human beings acquire many conditioned responses of this sort in the course of their lives" (Gagne’1985 pg.10). Despite the argument of whether it is a type of learning, classical conditioning is a behaviourist approach to learning. Behaviourists believe learning can be explained in terms of recognizable stimulus and reaction events. Also, they center on the role of reinforcement in stirring the individual to act in some ways" (Kehoe 1999). Behaviourism theory focuses mainly on objectively recognisable behaviors and disregards mind activities. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour (Behaviorism 2001). Experiments by behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus (Behaviorism 2001). The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response (Behaviorism 2001). Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future (Behaviorism 2001). B.F. Skinner is considered the "grandfather of behaviorism". He generated much of the experimental data that is the basis of behavioural learning theory. He and other behavioural theorists were concerned mainly with observable indications of learning and what those observations could imply for teaching. They concentrated on observable 'cause and effect' relationships (Conway 1997). Learning could have a good or bad effect on a person depending on what is learned. Some stresses in life such as phobia, fear, depression, and the like are learned. Although some may have more pre-disposition to be one, however, in most cases, the evidence is clear that a specific phobia is learned (Psychological Service Center 2002). On the other hand, overcoming phobia, fear, and depression can be achieved through learning process as well. A traumatic incident sensitizes the individual to be fearful of a specific object or situation. For example, being chased by a big dog as a child or being on a particularly turbulent airline flight might create a dog phobia or a fear of flying (Psychological Service Center 2002). However, learning need not always be direct. A person can learn from observing the behavior of others. There is substantial evidence for a process called "preparedness" by psychologists (Psychological Service Center 2002). Some types fear is more readily learned than others are. For example, evidence suggests that a person can be more prepared to learn to fear snakes than flowers in that the fear of snakes is learned more quickly. Other species also show preparedness in their fear learning. It is almost as if the brain is hard wired to recognize certain stimuli as more inherently dangerous than other stimuli and is therefore prepared to activate fear at the slightest provocation (Psychological Service Center 2002). One example of learned mental disorder is Social anxiety. The social anxiety disorder usually begins in the midteens, though it can begin earlier in childhood. It seldom begins in later years. Like many other conditions, social anxiety disorder likely arises from a complex interaction of a person’s environment and genes (Social Anxiety 2005). Some probable causes include Specific genes, which make a person more prone to anxiety and fearfulness. However, scientists are still straightening out the ambiguity of which specific genes may be involved in social anxiety disorder (Social Anxiety 2005). Moreover, social anxiety disorder is believed to be having a hereditary component, which means it tends to run in families. However, it is not clear whether that hereditary component is related to genetics or to behaviour, a person learns from other family members (Social Anxiety 2005). Depression is another mental illness that can be learned. A theory put forward by Seligman, based largely on some pretty nasty animal experiments, that the experience of being put in a position in which there is no possibility of escape from harm or pain can lead to an overall fatalism and resignation, in which it is believed that there is no point in trying to improve the situation (Learned helplessness 2005). More generally, it can explain a belief in one's own helplessness, which makes pointless any attempt to learn (Learned Helplessness 2005). Classic experiments comprise the manifestation that dogs which are restricted in a cage where they have no option of avoiding shocks from an electrified floor, no longer want to escape such shocks when given the opportunity to escape (Learned Helplessness 2005). Additionally, experiments on rats proved that rats which normally swim for 48 hours before drowning in a tank, only manage eight hours after having been held tightly and long enough to cease struggling before being put in the tank (Learned Helplessness 2005). Laziness is not an inborn characteristic; all are born with a desire to be productive, and like saplings growing in an orchard, each have within them the resources to bear fruit, to be and to feel useful and effective (Levine 2003). From early in childhood on through our adult years, people want to show what they can do. They gain energy and feel good about ourselves whenever their personal output wins the approval, the acceptance, the respect of friends, families, bosses (or teachers), and, most of all, their own self-critical selves(Levine 2003). Some individuals somehow, somewhere lose momentum; in the pursuit of accomplishment, they fail to produce; they stall out. In addition, often they face accusations of laziness. In truth, through no fault of their own, they suffer from hidden handicaps that disrupt and interrupt their output. They are not lazy; they have output failure (Levine 2003). The influence and the susceptibility of the drive to be productive are frequently neglected. Adults and children alike feel that a big part of who they are originated from what they do, mainly what they have done or what they are doing and what they want to accomplish in the future (Levine 2003). Disaster result when individuals have output failure and come to learn that their work is insignificant and maybe never will be valuable. Society pays a very high price to reinstate their mental health, to chastise them within society’s justice system, to deal with their inadequacy, and to deal with the several negative effects of their frustrating goals headed for success (Levine 2003). Fast-growing understanding of the human genome has recently made it clear that Nature has given each person with innate abilities and traits; nurture takes these genetic tendencies and molds them as we learn and mature (Powell 2005). However, the "nature vs. nurture" debate still rages on, as scientist fight over how much of whom we are is shaped by genes and how much by the environment (Powell 2005). Modern beliefs in biology discard the notion that genes alone can decide a talent or behaviour because genes are never adequate in isolation. At the molecular level, DNA interacts in complex ways with signals from other genes and from the environment (Nature vs. Nurture 2005). Some genes influence the development of a trait in the context of a particular environment, thus, measurements of the degree to which a trait is influenced by genes versus environment will depend on the particular environment and genes examined (Nature vs. Nurture 2005). In most cases, it has been found that genes may have a considerable contribution, including psychological traits such as talents, intelligence and personality but these traits may be largely influenced by environment in other circumstances, such as environmental deprivation (Nature vs Nurture 2005). Scientists have known for years that specific genes encoded in each human cell (Powell 2005) determine traits such as eye color and hair color. The Nature Theory takes things a step further to say those more abstract traits such as talents; intelligence, personality, aggression, and sexual orientation are also encoded in an individual's DNA (Powell 2005). Moreover, the environment plays a decisive role in developing an individual's talent such as in sports and music. However, regardless of such hereditary contributions, most abilities can be learned through proper training (Powell 2005). Just as in the case of identical twins, a number of studies show that they are never exactly alike even though they have similar genetic combinations; learning and environment still play a vital role in shaping their talents and behavior (Powell 2005). Another example is in parenting, most parents learned parenting skills by watching their own parents apply their skills and not from inherent genes. If their parents were good teachers, and they learned well from them, then we probably have a good set of skills that they can use to parent our own children, and they need only apply those skills (Parenting 2005). However, a parent innate intelligence will have a great deal of influence in rearing and understanding the children. References “Behaviorism.” (2001). Funderstanding. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005. from Funderstanding Web site:http:www.funderstanding. com/behaviorism.cfm “Constructivism.” (2001). Funderstanding. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005. Funderstanding Web site:http://www.funderstanding. com/constructivism.cfm Conway,Judith .(1997). Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction. Retreived 13 Nov. 2005, from copland.udel. edu. Web site:http://copland.udel.edu/~jconway/EDST666.htm Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Kehoe,Colleen. (1999). The Information Processing Theory. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from Colleen Kehoe. Web site: http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/ strategies/cognitivism/informationprocessing.htm “Learning.” (2005). Wikipedia. Retrieved 13 Nov.2005, from Wikimedia. Web site:http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/learning. “Learning theory (education).” Wikipedia. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from Wikimedia. Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Learning_theory_%28education%29" “Learned Helplessness.” (2005) Retrieved 13, Nov. 2005, from James Atherton Web site: http://www.learning andteaching.info/learning/learned_helplessness.htm Levine, Mel. (2003). The Myth of Laziness. Simon & Schuster. “Nature versus Nurture.” (2005). Wikipedia. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from Wikimedia. Web site: "http://en.wikipedia.org wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" Ormrod, J. E., Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, Fourth Edition. 2003, p. 227 “Parenting.” (2005). Retrieved 13, Nov. 2005, from Brad Paddock. Web site: http://mywebpages.comcast.net/bradpa/parenting. Htm Powell, Kimberly. (2005). Nature vs. Nurture. Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from About Inc. Web site:http://genealogy.about. com/cs/geneticgenealogy/a/nature_nurture_2.htm “Psychological Service Center.” (2002). Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from The State University of New York at Buffalo Web site:http://psychservices.buffalo.edu/conditions/ simphob.html “Psychology of Learning.” (2005).Wikipedia. Retreived 13 Nov. 2005, from Wikimedia. Web site:http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Psychology_of_learning. Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, M.D., Edwards, Jack, & Havriluk, Mary Anne (1997) Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching, Merrill, Upper Saddle river, NJ. “Social Anxiety Disorder (social phobia).” (2005) Retrieved 13 Nov. 2005, from Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research Web site:http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ social-anxiety-disorder/DS00595/DSECTION=3& Read More