Approaches to Continuing Education and Training - Literature review Example

Name Instructor Institution Date Approaches to Continuing Education and Training 1.0. Abstract This essay provides analysis and critical discussion of some of the approaches of workplace learning existing within academic literatures. The introductory part of this essay gives an overview why workplace learning in Australia has become significant issue for employees, policy makers, and employers. This paper continues with a discussion on theoretical, conceptual and practical understanding of workplace learning and how such are conceptualised within the context of Australia. The discussion here embodies among other things; the four approaches to workplace learning for Australian workers, paradigms and associated perspectives of learning and how through this, workplace learning as a concept is a subject to multiple interpretations. This section further discusses kinds of workplace pedagogies that best suit each of the approaches discussed. The final section of the paper addresses limitations associated with the four approaches to learning and give strategies that can best minimise such challenges. Such will be concretised with the conclusive remarks that highlight viewpoints of stakeholders regarding continuing education and training can be formulated to suit Australian workers. 2.0. Introduction Research on workplace learning arguably has expanded in publication and volume. Researches such as Billett et al. (2012) expand this knowledge but as recent as the research is, we need to recognise that learning best occurs within the work place and such is not a new concept. For instance, commentators, Stern and Sommnerland (1999) argue, “workplace learning provides the needed visibility and saliency because in is the juncture of our development. How many changes do we experience at the workplace before scholarly materials used in learning institutions get reviewed?” (p. 97) Australia is basically experiences globalised working environment and so requires us to be in constant touch with changes. It is at this point that Carmeli et al. (2009) explain that significant benefit are accrued when workers are allowed to learn internally as such conforms to specific needs of the organisation. However, Fuller and Unwin (2011) are critical of this opinion explaining that as the world is experiencing globalised economy, workers need to be dynamic and trying to be exposed to ‘confined’ training practices that best suit only ethical practices of the specific organisation kills manpower the country ought to have. In as much, contemporary scholars (Webster-Wright, 2010; Anders, 2008; Carmeli et al., 2009) agree that Australia needs workplace learning as such is the cornerstone for the economy and benefit the state, employer and employee. Where do researches lead us? There are two facts: first, it cannot be assumed that workers from Australia realise their full potential by attending learning institutions. Second, researches agree that there are four approaches to workplace learning that require understanding and development. 3.0. Approaches to Workplace Learning As explained above, the term workplace learning is multifaceted especially if such is confined within the context of Australian workers. To pin it down, the concept is generally twofold. First, the concept an issue of competing values and interests and as Simons (2005) observes, the term means development of individual capacities through contributing to effectiveness and production. The second is as argued by Carmeli et al. (2009) saying, “process of intersecting contested ideas, intersecting interests so as to evolve practices in an organisation.” (p.167) Within the paradigms of the above definitions, approaches to workplace learning this essay focuses on are: Individuals working and learning when performing work tasks, and being assisted by other co-workers Group processes facilitated or guided by experts Integration of experiences in work and education settings and Direct structured support for learning from a more experienced worker to individuals or groups 3.1. Individuals working and learning as they get assisted by co-workers Workplace learning theories arise from different paradigms of learning (Beckett and Hager, 2002; Hager, 2004a). It is the same paradigms that can help understand this approach. Individuals working and at the same time getting assistance from co-workers need to be seen as formal learning though embedded within a certain epistemological assumptions about knowing. On the other hand, under this approach, the learner or the individual in the organisation posits himself or herself as the object to be taught and so, the assumption of transparency from the co-workers and the idea that the person is assisted can be made explicit (ibid, p. 235). In this case, Hager (2004a) argues that this approach takes the standard paradigm of learning which assumes that context dependent and transparent knowledge given by people around you is the best form of learning and educational institutions are inferior other. Theories given to demonstrate this approach tend, broadly, to be influenced by cognitive psychology. To underscore this statement, (Thompson, 1995 as cited in Webster-Wright, 2010) carried an experiment on 34 workers from New South Wales regarding influence of institution-based continued education and training and workplace learning as also the process of continued education and training. In his findings, individuals working and learning as they get assisted by co-workers was realised to be the most effective as learners react and adapt to specific circumstances as they change and such were in with existing understandings and assumptions of the organisation. Recent study by Carmeli et al. (2009) also point out that this approach suits workers with ‘double loop learning.’ (p.342) By this they mean the worker builds upon needed knowledge which make them move beyond their existing systems of doing things. On the other hand, Schön (1983) gives a different practical understanding of this approach. For the investigated cases, workers through this approach gain knowledge needed through ‘reflective practices.’ Schön argues that through assistance from other members of staff, an individual get the required experience in a circular fashion. However, the worker in question should have inner reflections needed to gain the practices and actions. Theories explaining this approach actually posit that focus should be on the worker intending to integrate him/herself with the needed knowledge. That is, analytic attention is actually given to how cognitive and affective possessed by an individual contribute towards the process of learning. How does this approach therefore align itself within the context of Australia workers? First, workplace learning is argued to be challenging existing models of educations and even roles played by educators within the country (Schön, 1983). Secondly, there are significantly little literatures to review regarding how this approach is used by Australian workers. In as much, Billett et al. (2012) use evidence from case studies of workplace learning taking place in retail, food processing, steels and metals and software engineering companies. The findings show that when individual works and learns when performing a given task and being assisted by others, the outcome ranges from being restrictive to expansive. Restrictive in the sense that not every co-worker is willing to give correct guidance, expansive in the sense that one acquires knowledge from varied working mates. 3.2. Group processes facilitated or guided by experts Contemporary workplace theorists adopting socially informed perspective are equally contributing to what Schön (1983) understand as ‘emerging paradigm of learning (p. 45) Fuller and Unwin (2011) term this approach as emerging because unlike the previous, the approach uses team mental models described as organised cognitive representations of a team’s roles and interaction patterns. Shared mental model theory (Schön) posits that when workers/teammates hold similar mental cognitive representations, they are better positioned in terms of anticipating one another’s specific needs and actions which ultimately make them engage in more efficient searches for information that can help the team or an organisation. As also explained by Fuller and Unwin when experts intervene in group processes the group jointly interpret tenets and cues in their working environment. Such help negotiate solutions to problems encountered in the day to day running of the company. Consistent with these findings, Skår (2010) finds that shared mental models and continuous interactions develop team performance. In as much, recent studies have now started to focus on the effectiveness and accuracy of group processes facilitated by experts. In his case study, Fuller and Unwin show that lab and field studies for instance are good measures for accuracy performance groups as guided by experts. Skår (2010) however, is critical about the fact that, ‘experts’ should be included whenever there is group processes trying to learn something new from the environment. To him, bringing experts in the process of learning sounds as if none of the team members hold high-quality mental models or rather they all hold equal mental models that none amongst them can find a solution. His findings conform to the fact that when organisation adopts heterogeneous model of team and such is guided by an expert, then the organisation requires internal training to so that group members can share the same model. Social theory as captured by Billett et al. (2012) and Simons (2005) moves beyond the assumption made by Skår (2010). Billett et al. and Simons believe that knowledge captured in a group that occasionally engage their leader(s) are dynamically constructed. Billett et al exemplify this theory by developing the theory of expansive whereby he cites Armidale private hospital that engages their staff through group discussion. In the hospital, staff members from managers, nurses, lab technicians and physicians participate in a series of joint discussions stimulated through presentation of patient case study considered to be unique. Members are grouped differently with each group assigned external speaker that guides them through. By invitation, experts from other hospitals are invited to contribute their views regarding the case. The goal of the group discussion is to have staff that is diverse and collaborative in their thinking. Though this will be discussed later, group work assisted by experts is an approach that has been met with mixed reactions especially among expansive theorists. This approach does not suit all institutions within Australia, especially when we are concerned with financial institutions. Financial institutions adopting this approach might be stuck since not all that take place in banks for example will do so across teams, in relation to a common objective or problem the institution encounters. 3.3. Integration of experiences in work and education settings To show its worth, European Commission’s 2003 Memorandum of Lifelong Learning appreciates significance of an organisation integrating experience possessed by its workers and offering other education programme to facilitate continued education and training (Pouget and Osborne (2004). Recently, focus has been on Australian industries and developed researches geared towards what they term as ‘productive reflection’ which is brought about by an organisation making use of experienced employee to train other juniors (Skår, 2010). The essential element of this approach is that people learn from within and it is also focused on workplace activity. In addition to this, contemporary researches claim the approach is generally valuable because, “Yesterday’s trainees in vocational institutes and other training centers have no lifelong experience and if they have acquired such then they certainly need to be integrated through constant learning seminars and workshops that emphasis problem solving techniques, interpersonal skills and contextual understanding” (Billett et al., 2012 p. 24) On the other, lack of integration of experiences and education programmes particularly in the Australian IT sections continually make it hard for retention of employees as organisations feel that either universities produce half baked graduates or the process of change is too rapid for the these graduates to put up with. It is at this point this approach is necessary in ensuring that a new creative force is created which facilitates new form of engagement at work and gives powerful, intangible manpower to the organisation. As a matter of fact, Skår (2010) reports that Australian universities have been facing intense pressure from employers who wants them to be engaged in a range of collaborative programmes including employers sending their experienced staff members to offer some training to students. In line with Stebbins et al. (2006) finding, graduate competence in the Australian sports and recreation further concretises the demand for this approach. It is now emerging that strong knowledge-base alone as held by Australian workers does not guarantee success of an organisation and that personal experience acquired from other workers and affiliated training programmes have greater influence at workplace. Stebbins et al. in particular discuss significance of work placements, seminars and workshop to ensure that graduates in sports science acquire relevant skills. To examine this approach further, small study examining New South Wales job advertisements in IT during a two-month period, Walsh (2009a) realised behavioral skills such as motivation, communication, customer service and enthusiasm as well as practical experience as important requirement for any graduate’s employability. A research he conducted failed to attribute that such competencies were gained in universities. Instead, he argues the above competencies are better gained through setting systems within an organisation that ensure fresh workers attend work related seminars and in so doing socialise with other experienced people. 3.4. Structured support for learning from experienced worker to individuals or groups This approach has been regarded as ‘third generation approach’ (Skår, 2010). Individuals or groups using this approach for their continued education and training not only help the organisation but molds the worker to have sustainable competitive advantage, especially in turbulent and unpredictable business environments. It is mostly preferred by fresh workers as it is argued to have the ability of ensuring that the competencies are not seen as pre-existing resources as being developed and constructed through firm’s activities and practices. Thus the driving force behind this approach is to produce new competence or resource. In his recent research, Boud et al. (2006) term this approach as ‘competence as innovative learning processes’ (p. 156) In this sense, using direct structured support for learning from experienced worker and the acquisition process as well as knowing the process to produce capabilities and resources is learner centered. A possible model underlying this approach is two-fold. First, it is as the resource-based view (RBV) according to the model of resource-based view, the learner is seen as future resource to the company and the experienced worker is used by the organisation to enhance continuity within the organisation. The structured support on the other hand is regarded as a source of formal education where such continuity is centralised at. In so doing, a firm has the ability of gaining competitive advantage from its distinctive and inimitable resources or capabilities. The second model is that this approach is an integration of capabilities and so largely based on the idea of ensuring the organisation remains innovative which actually draws from the evolutionary theory of the firm. von Krogh and Grand (2002) explain the evolutionary theory of the firm as, “Schumpeterian rents result from differences in the ability of companies to create first-move advantages by productive innovation … firm differences result from dynamic evolutionary processes … where companies enact their environments through innovations …” (p. 165). In summary, this model argue that using this approach to engage workers ensures innovations in the economic systems and that to a greater extent, recombines conceptual skills that would otherwise be left out. 4.0. Limitations of the Approaches to Continuing Education and Training Until recently, commentators within workplace learning have not been focusing upon characteristics of learning for individual learners at work and how organisational structure can be a limitation to the approaches discussed. Authors like von Krogh and Grand (2002) for instance are only concerned with how organisation structures limit the application of these approaches. In summary, these approaches cannot be argued to compliment continued education and training as they fail in the following ways; 4.1. The design of jobs, and movement of employees It becomes technically complicated for organisations to apply some of the discussed approaches due to the nature of the job and movement of its employees. For instance, the adoption of individuals working and learning when performing work tasks, and being assisted by other co-workers becomes difficult especially if the organisation is designed in a manner that knowledge of the company and its resources are in the hands of senior staff and managers but not junior employees. Based on the earlier discussed modalities, an individual or the group depending on this approach will be constrained as they heavily depend on organisation’s resources which they cannot access. On the other hand, group processes facilitated or guided by experts as an approach will be limited to use especially when one is dealing with an organisation where the experts are constantly moved to other posts or department after serving for a given period of time. These random movements do not facilitate continuity with the learning and thus the group may not be able to gain further knowledge and skills if an expert they were depending on is constantly moved to a department they cannot access. 4.2. Organisational decisions about learning and its importance It becomes increasingly difficult for Australian workers to implement either of the mentioned approaches because some organisations that do not support workplace learning and consequently limit their choice of the approaches to use. Unlike institutions of learning, there exists some organisations where senior staff and in particular graduates are not given support needed to further their learning within the workplace. According to Australian National Training Authority (ANTA 2002a) most Non-Governmental Organisations do not supports workplace learning and thus limits the use of the approaches discussed. The reason behind such decision is because most of its employees are always contracted and thus the organisation does not have future with such employees. 4.3. Workplace learning through this approaches are work specific It needs to be admitted that there are no direct and relevant literatures to make comparative analysis between Australian workers taking workplace learning and those opting for institution-based learning. However, what Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003) conforms to what was earlier reported by Australian National Training Authority (ANTA 2002a). These approaches do not make an employee dynamic and instead, trains the person within the specifications of the organisations. In so doing, Australian innovation systems are paralysed. 4.4. The approaches lack ‘vocationalism’ By vocationalism, Eraut (2004) explains to be the ability of a worker to integrate new work order and the required knowledge society. What Australian workers are getting in terms of workplace related activities, vocational training and experimental models is actually mainstream education which have been pushed to one side---education which is aimed to satisfy production not personal growth. Therefore, workplace learning through either of the approaches becomes main issue as learning is not about being confined within a specific guidelines and timeline but exposed to wide range of activities therefore making the learner connect up the learning from different events and contexts. This is so apparent when we have an approach constituting direct structured support for learning from a more experienced worker to individuals or groups. 5.0. Strategies to minimise the limitations It is apparent that Australian workers prefer workplace learning as opposed to institution based. Therefore, in the ideal, workplace learning situation should encompass a systematic approach that involves networks and partnership. While this is one way of minimising the challenges above, the following are still critical: 5.1. Increasing all-inclusive innovative capacities within contexts of workplace learning Effective workplace learning should provide enterprises with the ability to innovate bearing in mind the advent of the global economy which has actually changed the nature of services required. Doing this will be a strategy to avert the problem of ‘vocationalism.’ Changing structures of workplace learning to offer all-inclusive innovative capacities will necessitate more skilled, dynamic and innovative work so as the individual become competitive and thus stimulates productivity improvements. 5.2. Changing structures of workplace Changing structures of workplace is a major driver for continued education and training. Actually, it is the nature of training rather than the volume that organisations should focus on. In recent past, organisations have been reluctant to restructure their departments to support workplace learning as they feared turning such organisation to vocational centers. For instance, Rio Tinto and recently changed its occupational structure such that proportion of employees who are managers are half others so that at least two of other ordinary employee can be assigned to a manager for further training. 5.3. Changing workplace cultures Supporting and valuing a culture of learning is an essential step in ensuring the approaches above are well supported. As workplace is the key site for development of the needed generic skills, changing its cultures means appreciating the need of establishing needed support and mechanisms that ensure learners easily continue their education. Conclusion The arrangement for continuing education and training for Australian workers rely on partnership between different stakeholders and in so doing there is a need for the stakeholders to ensure organised structures that can necessitate continued education and training for Australian workers. To begin with, stakeholders should structure the system so as to have interactive relationships in the process of learning and training. This however, should also consider models and pedagogic practices previewed earlier. The key point is, interactive relationships will be different with those other approaches since the learning process will be translated into managerial competencies. There have been complains from Australian employees regarding the quality of graduates. This issue has been mentioned above and to remedy it, stakeholders should encourage meta-learning and competence practice. That is, structured modes of learning which are problem centered. 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