Analysis of Pedagogical Theories, Methods and Research - Essay Example

? Qualitative Educational Research in Theory and Practice Task: Qualitative Educational Research in Theory and Practice The theoretical scaffolding of study and research of social life has prompted various paradigms to explain the existence of life phenomena. Paradigms are assumption in life, which picture the world from different angles. The definitions take different shapes ranging from epistemology, methodology and ontology. The unquestioned assumptions of paradigm strengths make it easy to understand life. There are various oriental approaches used for understanding the different phenomena in life. One such way of viewing the world is positivism. Positivism is philosophical science based information derived from mathematical and logical source of knowledge (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp. 12). Auguste Comte developed the paradigm in the 19th century with an objective viewpoint on stability of reality while basing various arguments on historical perspectives. Positivism is also the act of manipulating independent variables while maintaining others constant, in a bid, to identify the relationship between various elements of the world. The predictions in positivism may rely on past, or previous realities explained in the historical tradition. Notably, positivism discredits the existence of human knowledge in the society. It remains based on this regards that various discussions have arisen to counter the paradigm of positivism. The paradigms relationship with natural and physical sciences for instance, as remained a point of controversy. The paradigm reiterates that action within the society is similar to reactions that the physical world remits towards the absolute laws such as gravity (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp. 24). Positivism has generated an argument between poetry and philosophy hence creating a rift in the education systems. For instance, there has been a widening gap between humanities and sciences a factor brought misunderstanding in the education. Positivism advocates for superiority of sciences over the human mind thoughts for the reasons that the human mind provides non-inward knowledge. It furthermore promotes the use of scientific knowledge in judgmental decisions while disregarding other disciplines. Positivism believes reality exists; however, it is composed of various discrete elements (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp. 28). This means that reality in positivism is any phenomena with a single objective reiterating a solitary world. This has greatly influenced the education system considering the rift generated by the explanation. For instance, positivism regards social sciences as fallacious. This is the act of treating an abstract concept as having a real existence (May 2001, pp 44). This leads to causal efficacy between the two disciplines that fight over the impartial treatment of abstraction. Realism is the most common philosophical perspective, which holds the thought of a relationship and trust in non-observable concepts. Apart from causing confusion in education systems, positivism also promotes reification. Marxist philosophers like berger and Pullberg 1966 demise social sciences, while giving attention to reification (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp. 36). The Marxist theory, on the other hand, associates social sciences to capitalism a factor, which further complicates the education system. According to the theory, societal institutions have changed their role influencing existence of people. Use of positivism in the current education systems, therefore, not only causes confusion, but it also violates the integrity of history. It arouses negative feelings, creating biases towards various occurrences in life. It suggests elements of dishonesty in the process of creating various systems (May 2001, pp 67). Positivism does not derive conclusions on a subjective approach. Consequently, positivism does not give priority to emotion or feelings to interfere with the process of judgment. The basis of this argument is the fact that these aspects get clouded by human consciousness. It remains based on this perspective that positivism is relevant towards giving room for fictional observations. The paradigm believes all knowledge should be derived from scientific knowledge and not judgmental ways using emotional or psychological reactions. Positivism has brought many benefits in the education system. For instance, it offers a well defines the structure of carrying out studies and discussions. Positivists believe is set laws as well as rules of engagement a factor that leaves limited chance for errors. This has prompted successful and accurate research in varying education systems (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp. 71). The scientific knowledge has enabled application of experiments through the application of scientific and mathematical tools leading to modernization. On the other hand, positivism believes people can reach conclusions while disregarding emotions. This is very difficult as human behavior remains attached to emotional responses. Consequently, positivism offers rigid views of life a factor that makes studies more difficult. For instance, the paradigm delineates lateral thinking by attaching measurement and calculation of all things in the universe. This view of the world makes it difficult to estimate or research on various aspects of the world which are not quantifiable. Based on this regard, positivism concentrates more on quantitative research relying on real life existence and not myths or conceptions. Part 2 Paradigm wars have been on the verge of conflict among supporters of different arguments. Notably, no research paradigm is superior; however, each has a way of explaining different phenomena. Each has a unique way of providing unique knowledge by use of theoretical and empirical evidence. The discovery of new paradigms has created ways assessing and conducting research in different institutions ganging from universities to collages. This is considering the rising educational needs in the dynamic and globalizing society. Interpretive paradigm is a relatively new paradigm from the traditional arguments. The humanistic paradigm emerged in educational research during the 1970s modulated by anthropology (Hughes & Sharrock 1997, pp. 46). The paradigm seeks to understand the differences existing in different societies through construction of inter-subjective knowledge. According to interpretative paradigm, a prolonged process of interaction within the society influence societal expectations. Intepretivists assert that separation of science and human is extremely difficult. This marks a major difference between the paradigm and other paradigms such as positivism and post positivism. Intepretivism advocates for understanding of the different components of the world failure to which understanding becomes impossible (O’Reilly 2009, pp 79). The paradigm, therefore, give limited chance to instrument like surveys, which only provide an overview without full understanding of the society. Interpretivists, not only advocate for measurements and simple analysis without having basic knowledge of the research phenomena. This, therefore, makes interpretivism a complex method of research as it enables correct interpretation. This makes interpretivism a means of ideographic research revolving around conducting in depth analysis. It is of concern, to note that, the paradigm lacks generalizations as compared to positivism (Hughes & Sharrock 1997, pp. 51). The content analysis of the paradigm is of a story concentrating more of the subject rather than objective. It is a research employing conserted effort on discovery of context rather than justification of various studies. This makes interetivism a complex research method due to the high demand for information. Interpretivism hypothesizes instead of other paradigms, which attempts to test the various hypotheses. The paradigm marks the beginning of an empirical cycle employing external capacities such as validity as well as reliability of the subject under study. Correct interpretation in interpretivism relies on various factors such as trustworthy as well as authenticity. Other factors demanded by the paradigm include quality of data under study, which must be subjected to through triangulation. Interpretivism, therefore, is a complex research technique, which does not only stress interpretation of quality research but also focuses on the integrity of such data. Past developments in the research, industry points out various issues within positivism. For instance, for one, to conduct a successful research, it is essential to maintain a hermeneutic means of interpretation (O’Reilly 2009, pp 66). This is interpretation employing the researcher’s subjectivity in the process of maintaining and formulating quality research. Progressive development is a means of interpretative research in the inquiry process, which assists in adding the reflective quality of the dynamic research. It remains based on this perspective that many people find the paradigm challenging as it seeks for quality research. For one to ensure a successful research through interpretivism, various questions must come into perspective. For instance, past of the researcher is a critical tool in the paradigm. One must take into consideration past interaction of that might shape the outcome of research. It is also necessary with this regard to promote significant values of the present conditions for research to conform with future expectations. This ensures people and knowledge go hand in hand. Consequently, it is imperative to note the hidden assumptions, which might constrain or distort interpretative research. In interpretativicm, the assumptions dictate the way a research should be conducted and in the end influencing the conclusion. It is in this regard that most people regard the paradigm as the proficient way of conducting research. This is because, it limits human era, which might arise because of neglect or insufficient data (Hughes & Sharrock 1997, pp. 67). The paradigm engages teachers through reflective practitioners hence leading to the development of proficient standards. Interpretivism cycle of analysis takes into perspective different aspect of research. For instance, it promotes formulation and choice of a problem before settling on research. This ensures researchers do waste time and resources in conducting wrong research. It also allows for a diagnosing process which assists researcher in identifying various loopholes and other alternatives, which can assists successful research. Consequently, the paradigm promotes designing of various research techniques hence ensuring research flows in given sequence. This has led to the development of rigorous and quality standards for interpretive inquiry hence satisfying various goals in the quest for knowledge. The paradigm, therefore, offers integration between practical value and scientific standpoints in prescribing solution to life problems. It is essential to note that generalization in the reflective cycle developed by Van Aken 1994 satisfies scientific purposes of various research goals (O’Reilly 2009, pp 81). This has lead to valuable insight and successful, identification of new variable for successful interpretive research. Part 3 Research may appear hectic and intimidating without a plan or strategy. It remains based on this regard that people formulate research strategies, which assist in formulating various issues. Research strategies equip learners with skills and ability to locate various resources from different sites. It promotes access to required data by researcher without going into irrelevant and useless information. A research strategy, therefore, is an inevitable means of conducting research. Based on the nature of research, different researchers use varied ways for conducting studies (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp 11). One such suitable, applicable and sufficient way is the use of case studies. In as much as many people view this as a vague strategy, it offers a lot of information necessary for research. In spite having case studies as a good research strategy, many arguments have prevailed. For instance, some researchers regard the strategy, as being uncertain hence can only be applicable in conclusions. They also consider cases study as a strategy that should only be used applied as a pending resort in the exploratory stages of research. This further raises questions as to the integrity of case study as a means of offering information. In as much as these criticisms prevail, it is also vital to note the role of case study in research. In the education system for instance, it forms a basis in social science studies offering a chance for continued discovery of the world. Case studies allow flexibility in the education fraternity while obtaining information. It also offers a chance for a holistic inquiry creating a merger between empirical events and real life experiences. This ensures there is adequate information in the education sector engrossed by multiple sources of evidence. In various education systems, social sciences have remained important for developing varied careers (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011, pp 28). Among the many ways of strategizing for information in the field, case studies form a source of archival information. It offers a high degree of experimentation focusing on the principal subject in any investigation process. Furthermore, case studies help in isolating various life experimentation processes leading to the provision of social factors extensively. Notably, case studies offer a wide arena for both qualititative and quantitative information highly needed in the education sector. Case studies, therefore, can be used for various researches in the educational arena, especially within the social sciences where more research still needs attention. In as much as case studies provide both qualitative and quantitative data, qualitative interpretation remains the most appropriate due to the limited, exploratory phase. Observation remains yet another method of research, which has been applicable in various research fields. It is a quality research paradigm used mainly in the cultural anthropology field derived from the early century. Observation is extremely critical for various reasons including the first hand collection of data. Observation applies various techniques in the process of facilitating a successful research. For instance, it makes use of collective discussions, analysis of personal documents, direct observation or group participation (Brockmann 2011, pp 225). Different education systems prefer varying observation techniques; however, it is imperative to note that the quantitative dimensions created through observation. The evolutionary spirit to adventure the environment may apply many techniques; however, observation remains vital. For instance, through observation one can take a note of microscopic bacteria through lenses. From this perspective, observation marks the beginning of all researchers. According to ethnographic research, observation is a key component of naturalism. The universal laws of the environment require experiments to be undertaken without interfering with the natural state. Observational research creates an impressionistic approach in seeking answers towards various phenomena in the world. Observation, therefore, is a vital part of the education system giving preference to interpretation of all techniques (Brockmann 2011, pp 229). Observation as a research method remains vital in developing interpersonal resources. Theoretical understanding in the observation process is important for discovery of various facts important for a successful study. In the current educational system, observation has remained relevant in all aspects of research. Application of observation in research varies with the objectives of subject under study. For instance, non-participant observation allows for cross-examination of varied phenomena without having contact. In this case, the observer is the eavesdropper who records conclusions as well as processes in experiments. Participant observation, on the other hand, requires active involvement of the observer with the intended quorum. Based on this regards, the level participation in observation varies. For instance, both methods create poles for continuum revealing complete absorption in studies. Unstructured observation is another form of examination used in the current education system (Brockmann 2011, pp 231). It is a technique applied in the early phases of research highlighting certain aspects revolving around the objectives. It prompts ways of conducting the observation while at the same time creating a structured flow of research. Notably, observation controls reliability and validity of research ensuring quality extraction of data. In as much as observation is the simplest, readily available and cost effective means of conducting research, it is also subjected to cultural as well as the language barrier. Part 4 Child mentoring has become a centre of ingredients in many countries for policy making since the election of the labor party in 1997. Acher’s et al’s book, urban youth and schooling, is intriguing source of information pointing various issues in the contemporary society. Chapter one, social exclusion, risk and urban schools present various questions in a bid to provide more understanding into the dynamic youth culture. For instance, one pressing question is how schools can change to accommodate and engage the urban youth. Consequently, the chapter addresses the role of education and school policies in the lives of many urban youths who lose interest with time (Archer et al 2010, pp 13). The disengagement of classes also becomes an issue of concern in the chapter, as a solution remains critical for prosperity. According to the book social divisions in earth has resulted into magnanimous transformations. In understanding social theory from Acher’s et al’s book, it is essential to understand various aspects of the theory. For instance, it is critical to note the difference between enlightenment and rationality. This is because the two aspects of social theory play a significant role in drawing a line in individualism. Social theory as depicted in chapter Acher’s et al’s book highlights various aspects of the society, which significantly affects the educational system (Archer et al 2010, pp 14). According to the social theory, cultural changes in the society have prompted irregular enlightenment leading to meta-assumptions. This has created social coherence within the society leading to massive dropout from schools as adopt into the free play systems. This is the same to the youths in the contemporary society, which extrapolate reality while disregarding self-enclosed discipline. The urban youth given priority in the book ranges from 14 to 16 years. The youths develop many complexities in a bid to maintain schooling while at the same time advocating their social life (Archer et al 2010, pp 16). The social theory also found in the book puts into perspective social exclusion of Londoners, who have high potential to drop out of school. From the book, the structure of the society exists in such as a way that, the behavior of individuals follows societal expectations. Societal structure furthermore leads to various problems. According to chapter one of Acher’s et al’s book, interaction of youths in schools contribute significantly to continued stay. Configuration of implicit integration of youths in education systems has remained a subject of social cohesion. This is because urban schools are dangerous places full of negative factors. For instance, it is in the urban schools where crimes thrive, poverty manifests and drugs find ways into the society. Viability of various educational projects relies on ambition and aspiration of students; however, lack of the two automatically leads to dropout of individuals. Social exclusion or marginalization manifested in social theory as a social risk contributing majorly to the high dropouts. It is vital to note that urban schools have many challenges; however, social exclusion propagates hatred developed by youths towards schooling (Archer et al 2010, pp 19). Social exclusion can take different shapes ranging from disregard of people based on social classes to hatred based on disability. The dynamic multifaceted means of material deprivation apply both to social and political engagement. Apart from using social theory to point out various issues of social exclusion, social theory furthermore takes notice of various risky activities that the youths engage. For instance, the chapter brings to the attention of readers John Anderton who through various investigative approaches remains linked to murder activities. Instead of facing the wrath of the law, he escapes using his social status influencing his way through the justices system (Archer et al 2010, pp 23). This is a poor show to the youths, who view it as a crime free path. From this perspective, having a higher social status is a gateway to social justice through acting as a social precog. Acher’s et al, therefore, uses this arena to advocate for social equity through demining self realization. This is only realized through recognition of various social classes, gender as well as ethnicity. Part 5 Structural barriers and inequality in the society is one significant factor addressed in Acher’s et al book of urban youth and schooling. The notion of meritocracy when formulating various contemporary policies appears in the book. Schooling has remained a challenge in the society, considering many issues that arise. Structural barrier is a problem in the contemporary society leading to formulation social classes. The social classes dictate behavior of people towards others. Working classes, for instance, have a way of life separate from the middle class and lower class. This is same to the mode of education where students from a higher background attend high-class schools. Cultural fragmentation creates multiple spectacles originating from ethnicity and race. Acher’s et al reiterates that youths face many challenges ranging from drugs to adolescence associated with urban education (Archer et al 2010, pp 35). The book furthermore puts in check three Rs of urban school environment pointing out various issues responsible for future aspirations. Notably, the book highlights various policies, which can help in improving urban education considering the increasing rate of problems. In chapter four of the book, Acher’s et al talks of responsible boys and gender schooling to bring into perspective factor associated to boys’ education. Based on this regard, the paper answers some of the reasons why most boys find it difficult to engage in post compulsory education. Gender has played a crucial role in education. One problem is social exclusion of gender where boys find it difficult to withstand scrutiny. Post compulsory education is critical towards nurturing careers. The systems, therefore, make it possible for various students to realize their dreams. Socialization has remained a problemised aspect attached to men Archer et al 2010, pp 41). Criticism of boys make it difficult for men to engage freely hence their limited success in post compulsory education. Consequently, men find it difficult to clear post compulsory education due to the high demand from families and other social occupants. For instance, the masculinity identity renders them source of protection as well as a source of livelihood. It remains based on this regard that many boys indulge into employment fraternities before clearing school systems. Few boys in the education sector have the enthusiasm to clear the post compulsory education. This is partly due to consistent poor performance, which curtails their morale of getting into their dream careers. Most men either perform averagely or are below average during tests. They, therefore, find no reason to proceed with education to higher levels hence falling out into the employment fraternity. Boys get pictured as pillars of the society, parents as well as guardians, therefore, have good aspirations (Archer et al 2010, pp 52). Parents, therefore, have a say in their careers influencing what they need to do and how they should conduct the same activities. Boys, on the other hand feel marginalized when decisions are made concerning their life. As a form of resisting the control from their parents, boys fall out of school hence not reaching the post compulsory education level. It, therefore, is evident that most boys reject post-compulsory education for many reasons including fear of scrutiny or control. Part 6 The myriad of school growth in the early 1990s had various policies meant to streamline the education sector. The policies included those meant to create effective learning environments and enable quick orientation. Interscholastic association is an urgent policy of the education sector meant to introduce intellectual association among students. This was to introduced through drama, music festival, subject contest not forgetting other extracurricular activities. Inter scholastic association among students psychologically creates stability hence not engaging in negative social activities. Contemporary policies also targeted maximizing time usage of students in order to reduce the influence by other aspects of the environment because of idling. This is through lengthening school days and time while providing enough schoolwork to keep the students busy. Well-planned childhood programs and diets also attract attention as some of the policies for improving student welfare while in schools. It is imperative to note that the policies do not only cover students, however, they also touch the teachers side where the policies ensure teachers operate within their jurisdiction to awards students appropriately using standardized tests (O’Reilly 2009, pp 123). Among other important policies, access to technology remains of great interest; the policies improved access of students through comprehension and advancement of reading skills. In as much as the policies have served their intended objectives, it is vital to note that various loopholes remain untouched. This exposes students to risks hence raising questions. It is in this regard that Acher’s et al in his book presents various policies, which can ensure effective and intermediate improvement of student welfare while at schools. Capacity building is a policy instrument addressed by Acher’s et al informs of hot knowledge. Social networking is a crucial component of any education system. Various policies formulated to address the issue of imparting hot knowledge have proven worthless as most empower the teachers. The similarity of environment and same stories from teachers make it difficult for students concentrate hence leading to the many problems in life (Craig 1992, pp 35). As proposed by Acher’s et al, youths need hot knowledge composed of new factors. The current generation of youths composes generation Y who has high expectations while anxious. They are youths in the verge of making adventures hence mismatch of information between the two segments. Hot knowledge as addressed by Acher’s et al meets the demand of higher education hence closing the gap between pre-course selections. Past education, policies fail to meet this perquisite as they only address the physical demands while failing tackle aspects such as emotional and psychological drivers. Any education component must be dynamic to facilitate response to economical, social and individual demands. It remains based on this regard that any policy must tackle both managerial and structural development (Craig 1992, pp 45). Most policies in the past education systems fail to address various issues of career development and nurturing. The policy to ensure a soothing learning atmosphere gives much priority to student comfortability rather than future expectations (Archer et al 2010, pp 67). On the other hand, various policies regarding teacher operations fight for standardized teaching failing to create interest within the students for future lives. In this light, Acher’s et al brings into perspective work placement as a policy, which can help in nurturing various talents. Work placement independent of location help students in various ways. It imparts working knowledge and experience in student hence promoting interest while at the same time creating awareness. In as much as this is extremely powerful for students. Many policies fail to address the issues giving priority to other factors, which necessarily have short-term effects (O’Reilly 2009, pp 134). According to Acher’s et al book, most boys fail to reach the high levels of education because of no role models. Consequently, they lack proper networking channels, which can make them aware of the outside world. This, therefore, is a policy well addressed by Acher’s et al in an attempt to close the gap between education and awareness (Craig 1992, pp 35). This can greatly assist in relinquishing the fear and uncertainty developed by students in the verge of pursuing their career dreams. Acher’s et al furthermore calls for correct use of technological advances. Most policies from the past advocate for technological awareness, however, they do not give a further direction on the use of such technology. As a result, students shift from the focus using technology for negatives activities such as watching pornographic films. It remains based on this regard that Acher’s et al advocates for a comprehensive technological suitability to limit the idleness developed. References Archer et al 2010, Social Exclusion, Risk and Urban Schools (Chapter 1) In Urban Youth and Schooling, McGrawHill-Open University, Maidenhead. Archer, L; Hollingworth, S & Mendick, H 2010, Urban Youth and Schooling, McGraw-Hill International, Buckingham. Brockmann, M 2011, ‘Problematising short-term participant observation and multi-method ethnographic studies’, Ethnography and Education, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 229–43. Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K 2011, Case Studies’ (Chapter 14) In Research Methods in Education, 7th edition, Routledge, Oxon. Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K 2011, The positivist paradigm’ (Chapter 1) In Research Methods in Education , 7th edition, Routledge, Oxon. Craig, I 1992, What’s wrong with Theory and Why we still need it? In Modern Social theory, Pearson, Harlow. Hughes, J. & Sharrock, W 1997, The Interpretive Alternative in The Philosophy of Social Research, Pearson Longman, Harrow. May, T 2001, Official statistics: topic and resource ’. In Social Research: Issues, Methods, Process, Open University Press, Buckingham. O’Reilly, K 2009, Interpretivism’, in, Key Concepts in Ethnography, Sage, London. O’Reilly, K 2009, Key Concepts in Ethnography, Sage, London. Read More