Perspectives on Special Education Needs and Disabilities - Essay Example

?Perspectives on Special Education Needs and Disabilities (SEND) Children who develop differently from their peers stand to be viewed differently by people as well. Special education needs and disabilities (SEND) may impede children from being treated normally, as it may be believed that they should be treated with kid gloves. However, even Vygotsky, a world-renowned psychologist hypothesized that “a child whose development is impeded by a defect is not simply a child less developed than his peers but is a child who has developed differently” (Vygotsky, 1993, p.67). He argues that these individuals develop compensatory processes in order to be part of the social milieu (in McPhail & Freeman, 2005, p. 89). This paper will explore various perspectives about children with special needs and disabilities and how they fit into society. Specifically, it will discuss the case for learners with Autism and ADHD. Roots of Inclusion According to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), “A mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life in conditions which ensure dignity, promotes self reliance and facilitates the child’s active participation in the community” (UNCRC, 1989, Chapt.3, para. 1). This mandates everyone to care for children with disabilities and establish a system that makes them more “enabled” and “empowered” as they are fully accepted and accorded due attention and support. This has also made more people acknowledge the needs of individuals with disabilities, hence, more legislations have been decreed in several countries. In the UK, passage of the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act (DDA), affords protection to disabled people against discrimination in certain prescribed areas, principally employment, education and the provision of goods and services. The DDA rules that every educational organisation and LEA needs to provide equivalent access to the educational programme for children with disabilities. The disability discrimination issues are also covered in the “Equality Act” (2010) which replaced the DDA. It continues to convey the previous discrimination- and equality- oriented legislations under the former act (Royal College of Nursing, 2001). Levine’s (2002) clinical work with students with learning disabilities has also indicated that a recognition of and capitalization on their specific strengths of mind fosters their development, whereas a focus on their specific weaknesses compromises their development. This would be a good guiding principle when dealing with children with all kinds of disabilities. In doing so, their self-esteem is built up and they are empowered to push themselves towards their optimal potentials. Studies such as Levine’s among others have encouraged the provision of education of children with disabilities in order to optimize their potentials. The Salamanca Statement has been influential in that all children have the right to receive an education regardless of their culture and social background (UNESCO, 2005). Concern for children with disabilities has already spread in the UK from the 1970’s thanks to some advocates such as Mary Warnock who raised the issues on helping children with SEN. The Warnock Report in the year 1978 was developed to appraise the provision for children with psychological as well as physical disabilities. The report had sponsored various ranges of abilities, from low-functioning to high functioning, of special needs for children. The report laid the foundations for the issuance of statements of special education need in the UK. Warnock’s committee found that 20% of children in schools have SEN but 2% of this group may need more elaborate services that are not offered by the mainstream school system. Hence, they need to be diagnosed, issued a statement that they are entitled to special needs provision (Douglas Silas Solicitors, 2010). The Warnock Report paved the way for the “Education Act” which was imposed in the year 1983. This act presented different methods to the description of children with SEN. It advocated that these children should be able to obtain the educational support from tutors in the classroom such as the provision of extra time and assistance compared to other students (Sturt, 2002). This act has since evolved. Education Act of 1996, Section 312 mandates LEAs to offer resources in order to recognise and support specific learning problems in children. LEAs were imposed with additional tasks to make an evaluation of children in their disability area (Pumfrey & Reason, 1991). Special education needs (SEN) were determined. In 1996 the law on SEN stated that: “A child has special educational needs (SEN) if he or she has a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him or her” (Education Act, 1996, Section 312). Children with learning difficulties are described as follows: Firstly, has a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children of the same age; secondly, has a disability which either prevents or hinders the child from making use of educational facilities of a kind provided for children of the same age in schools within the area of the local education authority; finally, is under five and falls within the definition at firstly or secondly above or would do if special educational provision was not made for the child (Education Act, 1996, Section 312). In addition to this, in September 2001, another law was created with regards to children with SEN. This was entitled the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (SENDA) and further regulated inclusion in schools by stating that: Firstly, an educational institution should not treat a disabled person 'less favourably' for a reason relating to their disability. Secondly, an institution is required to make 'reasonable adjustments' if a disabled person would otherwise be placed at a 'substantial disadvantage'. Thirdly, adjustments should be 'anticipatory '. (SENDA, 2001) Simply put, SENDA introduces the rights of disabled students and says that they must not be discriminated against. This includes education, teaching and other facilities provided exclusively or primarily for students offered by organisations including additional and higher educational establishments and universities. These statements are directed to those schools that are mandated to accept people with disabilities in compliance with the law. Such laws were created to protect the interests of children with special needs so they are not prejudiced in the provision of the education they deserve. The SEN Code of Practice (2001) is the government guidance on meeting the SEN of children with disabilities. Its principles include that children with special needs should have their needs met and that children will normally have their needs met in a mainstream school. Children with SEN should have full access to a broad, balanced and relevant curriculum, including the National Curriculum or, for younger children, the foundation stage curriculum. The children’s views should be taken into account and their parents should be treated as partners of the school (ACE, 2011). Much of what has been described are components of inclusive education. The concept of inclusion has evolved throughout the years and is often discussed in relation to involving children with Special Educational Needs (SEN) in the classroom. Children with SEN are described as pupils who need additional help at school because they have learning difficulties or disabilities which significantly affect their access to the curriculum (Farrell, 2006). Inclusive education has evolved towards the idea that all children despite their cultural and social learning backgrounds should be provided with effective learning opportunities to take part in schools (UNESCO, 2005). The Salmanca Statement (UNESCO,2008 – cited in Donnelly, 2010, p.8) argues that schools should provide an inclusive education for all stating that inclusive education is “an on-going process that is aimed to offer quality education by respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities”. The Salamanca Statement recognised that an inclusive society is one in which differences are respected and valued (Pais, 2007). Cheminais (2001) argues that "inclusion is the keystone of current government education policy". Loreman and Deppeler (2001, in Loreman et al, 2005, p. 12) assert that full inclusion includes the inclusion of children with various abilities in all aspects of their schooling. These children should be able to enter and enjoy such schooling with other children. Therefore mainstream schools must accommodate all children and make changes to meet the needs of a wide range of children’s needs. Ideal inclusion has schools customizing curriculum to the special needs of children with disabilities and providing them with the necessary resources to comply with the expectation of equal opportunities. This means provision of ramps and space adjustments for children in wheelchairs or creation of Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) for children with learning disabilities. Teachers and Specialists collaborate on designing the curriculum for such children. A SEN Coordinator (SENCO) (1997) is the teacher in the school whose responsibility it is to meet the special education needs of the students. He, or she, works with other teachers and parents to coordinate plans and interventions for children with special needs (NHS, 2012). Special Education Policies   Concern for children with disabilities, whether in physical or in learning have pushed governments to pursue their best interest. The Education Act of 2010 focuses on promoting inclusion and incorporation of children with SEN rather than separation and segregation in the school. The law also states that schools in the UK need to publish their SEN policies and employ a SEN Coordinator (SENCO) (Sturt,2002). Under the new provision, children with SEN might be entitled to extra support inside the classroom, or special facilities for examinations. Whether children with special needs actually get additional support may depend on the unique SEN policies of different schools and on the intensity of the child’s learning difficulties. In the case of a child having a statement of special needs, any school will be entitled to get extra support (BBC News, 2005). Gray’s (2001) research examined the changing role of SEN Support Services in regards to the developing national advances towards greater integrated inclusion across the UK and the recent movements towards more delegation of support services and funding for schools. This study conducted a postal survey (2000) of the Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in England and case studies of Support Services in three other authorities. The primary purpose of the study was to investigate the extent of the move towards greater inclusion and whether this is attuned with the increase in delegation of funding for schools. The research demonstrated that there must be several elements in place to make sure that the delegation of SEN support is effective in meeting the needs of SEN students and promoting greater inclusion. It has been argued that funding and responsibility for inclusion are connected so funding delegation for SEN students must be a process. Therefore, there are various obstacles to delegation which must be planned and resolved. This suggests that there are steps that must be taken by schools, support services and local and general government so that the different strings of current policy are compatible (Gray, 2001). Issues on SEND Specifically Autism and Autism Spectrum Disorder Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders that first emerge in early childhood (Ronald et al., 2009). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): a behavioural disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. It is complex syndrome of impairments related to the development of brain cognitive management systems or executive functions. It affects a person’s organization skills, concentration, focus and prolonged attention on a task, processing speed, short-term working memory and access recall, sustained motivation to work and the appropriate management of emotions (American Psychological Association, 2000). Autism is defined as: a complex developmental disorder characterised by severe difficulties in communication, social interactions, and executive functions. Social and communication disturbances are generally explained in terms of a defective neurocognitive mechanism responsible for the attribution of thoughts and feelings to oneself and to others (Zalla et al., 2006, p. 527). Due to the nature of both conditions, a child diagnosed with either ADHD or Autism may be considered a child with special education needs (SEN). In 2001 the Education Act further expanded on the definition of SEN: “A child has SEN if he has a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him (s.312). A child, for the purposes of the SEN provisions, includes any person under the age of 19 who is a registered pupil at a school.” (Special Educational Needs And Disability Act, 2001). Some behaviours manifested by individuals with these conditions may seem odd to others, hence they are prone to be treated differently than their normally-developing peers. They are vulnerable to being teased or even bullied by other people who may not understand their condition and cope with it by laughing at or making fun of them. Others might label as them as burdensome and expect that they are not as intelligent or productive so do not give them challenging tasks thinking they will not be able to do it anyway. In order to prevent these circumstances from happening and cause negative outcomes for children with SEN, private organizations and government bodies have collaborated on ensuring these children’s best interests. The legislative support of the Every Child Matters programme is the Children’s Act in 2004. This act aims to: “Improve and integrate children's services, promote early intervention, provide strong leadership and bring together different professionals in multi-disciplinary teams in order achieve positive outcomes for children and young people and their families” (DfEs Children Act and Reports, 2004). Kgare (2000) considers the support, strategies and services that are available for assisting students to learn and these include counselling and peer and family support in an unstructured educational environment. Training courses are available to help parents learn more about how they can support their children (Elloker, 1999). Schools are encouraged to work with parents to experiment with different strategies to discover the best methods to make inclusion work for the SEN student and all the students in the class. Weiner (2003) supports this by arguing that the most useful and important “changes in the culture of a school would result from a common focus and shared responsibility for student learning outcomes” (Weiner, 2003, p. 18). That means all of teachers, parents, professionals and students must be work together to classify the needs of the individual SEN and the best methods which would maximise the education for them. Identification of Children with Autism and ADHD Trained developmental paediatricians and specialists in children with special needs are licensed to diagnose developmental disorders. However, parents can detect some symptoms that are not usually exhibited by typically developing children. Symptoms that yield positive for Autism include typical problems observed regarding limited eye contact, absence of appropriate facial expressions and gestures, lack of developmentally appropriate peer relationships, absence of shared attention, and a general lack of emotional or social reciprocity (Hillman, 2006). Aside from these symptoms, children with Autism also manifest restricted or repetitive behaviours, interests and activities and compulsion to adhere to repetitive actions or rituals that do not serve any function. Examples of behaviours include hand flapping or twirling also known as “stimming”. Language and non-verbal communication skills are also not manifested or are delayed significantly (Hillman, 2006). With regards to ADHD, symptoms typically developing manifest in early childhood before age seven. Most symptoms are observed in the school setting. Due to the fact that the behaviours that define inattention are related to academic activities, classrooms require children to focus their attention and demonstrate self-application and self discipline (Jensen, et al, 1999; Hawkins, Martin, Blanchard & Brady, 1991). However, AD/HD may or may not be accompanied by hyperactivity or other readily observable symptoms. Some students may appear to be paying attention to the discussion in class but they are actually drifting off and thinking of unrelated things. Others may be diligent in reading assignments but shortly after, will be unable to recall what had just been read. Recent research on AD/HD gives evidence that it is not a problem of will power but a chronic impairment in the chemistry of the management system of the brain. Brown (2007) reports that there is much evidence to show that ADD is a heritable disorder with impairments in the release and reloading of two crucial neurotransmitter chemicals made in the brain: dopamine and norepinephrine. These chemicals play a significant role in facilitating communication within neural networks that facilitate cognition (Brown, 2007). Interventions for SEND Children with special needs and disabilities must be provided with access to a broad, balanced and relevant curriculum usually in a mainstream or inclusive school. Mainstreaming is closely linked to the traditional form of refers to selective placement of special education students in regular education classes. It is assumed that some special education students may keep up with the work load in regular classes and may therefore join the group. Inclusion, on the other hand, believes that the child should always begin in the regular environment and be removed only when appropriate services cannot be provided in the regular classroom (Stout, 2001). Piaget (1959) believes that children’s interaction with the environment encourages learning. Such interaction brings about learning, as concepts are constructed or changed, usually, differing from adult concepts. Still, Vygotsky (1962) inspires another perspective, as he theorized that a child learns through conversation and involvement with an adult. The interaction between adult and child is ‘scaffolding’. This occurs when a knowledgeable adult gently guides a child through successive learning activities while relinquishing autonomy little by little to the child until such time he can manage on his own. Considering the recommendations of Piaget and Vygotsky for encouragement of learning, it would be beneficial for the child with special needs and disabilities in a mainstreamed or inclusive class with other children with a specially designed individualized educational plan (IEP) to implement for him. Autism Spectrum Disorders Treatment options for ASD have been evolving in recent time. In the past, people with autism were usually institutionalized in mental hospitals (Weaver and Hersey, 2005). Psychoanalysis was also considered a treatment (Seigel, 1996; Bauman & Kemper 1994; Rimland, 1994). Now that ASD is regarded as a neurological disorder ,treatments are now mostly based on behavioural, cognitive-developmental, and medical research findings. Parents’ perspectives are also more valued and recognized and they have stepped up as partners in their children’s treatments (Weaver and Hersey, 2005). Several therapies have been designed to teach autistic individuals ways to communicate better and be more actively participate in social interactions. Educational interventions such as mainstreaming and inclusion programs with appropriately planned individual educational plans (IEP) have been available choices for the growing autistic child. Understanding of autism, its causes and treatments, is still far from complete. Since autism was first identified as a developmental disorder, a variety of approaches and strategies have been suggested. These interventions and treatments have increased from the range of theoretical positions, some of which have shown to be effective with various populations of children. Because it may be difficult to teach, deal, and live with individuals with autism both at school and at home, parents, educators, practitioners, and all who will be working with these children need to have current understanding of the nature, possible causes, symptoms, and issues pertaining to different intervention programs in order for them to better serve the children. Although continued research on Autism is underway, what may be more important than finding the cause is finding the most appropriate intervention to help out individuals with autism and how they can cope with daily living and function well in society. It is apparent that there is now a growing awareness and respect for obstacles facing children with autism. After thorough evidence by several researchers, autism now has been established as a neurological disorder and not a psychological disturbance. The common bond shared by all authors is the understanding that children with Autism Spectrum Disorders are unique individuals, and there is no single explanation that accounts for the developmental profiles and challenges of all of these children. Thus, there is no single intervention, approach, or treatment modality that can address the varied needs of all these children. The clinicians and educators will need to explore and document the effectiveness of different specific interventions with each individual child with autism. For individualized interventions, the following are some options for children with autism or other special education needs and disabilities: Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): This method is a treatment and teaching approach that consists of several programs and activities using the antecedent-behavior-consequence model. By administering positive reinforcement such as praising or smiling when a desired behavior occurs and administering negative reinforcement such as scolding or correcting when an undesired behavior occurs, one is assumed to encourage the desired behavior and make it more likely that that behavior will recur (Lindfors, 1987). In ABA, each action is considered related to a behavior and is analyzed to determine what came before it, how the behavior occurred and what happens after. This analysis is studied in order to encourage positive behaviors to occur more often (Lovaas, 1987). Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS): A communication training system where the child is gives a picture of a preferred item to a communicative partner (parent, teacher or therapist) in exchange for the item. Initially, the communicative target is requesting. When the child is able to successfully request, his behavior is reinforced by being given the preferred item requested. This training is designed to take place in a social context. Teaching a child with special needs to request is a useful skill, and often facilitates the teaching of other communicative intents. (Quill, 1995). “Social Stories”: This intervention will be able to help out the child’s difficulty in social interaction skills. It was developed to help individuals deficient in social interaction to “read” and understand social situations by presenting appropriate social behaviors in the form of a story. Read repeatedly, the story will enable the child to successfully enact the skills appropriately taught and hopefully be able to apply them in social situations (Gray, 1993) Speech Therapy: To address the child’s language and communication deficits, speech therapy may also be included in his repertoire of interventions. Speech therapy builds on an individual’s strengths and can greatly improve both communication and behavior. A speech therapist addresses the use of language pragmatics or the “give and take” of conversation for social purposes (Charlop, 1989). ADHD Certain medications have been manufactured to compensate for the inefficient release and reloading of essential neurotransmitters at countless synaptic connections in the brain. Individuals with the ADHD disorder have experienced remarkable improvement in their functioning when they are treated with appropriate doses of such medications. These medications alleviate symptoms only for the time when the medication is active in the brain, thus helping the individual in most self-management tasks. For children, management of ADHD should not be limited to medication and should be given a combination of interventions. Harlacher, Roberts & Merrell (2006) identify some Behavioral and interventions for managing ADHD as follows: Contingency Management; Therapy Balls; Self-Monitoring; Peer Monitoring and Instructional Choice. Academic Interventions include: Classwide Peer Tutoring; Instructional Modification and Computer-Assisted Instruction. Contigency Management is the application of consequences that are contingent on identified behaviors. To increase the frequency of appropriate behaviors, positive reinforcement is given every time they manifest it. For example, students earn tokens or chips for certain behaviors exchangeable for greater reinforcers, praising when they are attentive as well as removal of such reinforcers on inappropriate behaviors (Harlacher, Roberts & Merrell, 2006). Another effective intervention is the use of Therapy balls as the child’s seat, as they need to concentrate and sit still in order to balance themselves on such balls. Self-monitoring involves agreed upon behaviors that the student will monitor himself (ex. Completion of task, attentiveness, talking out) and self-evaluate to indicate how well he has performed. If the student matches his rates with the teacher’s evaluation, he is rewarded. This happens until the teacher fades out her own evaluation and the student relies on his own realistic evaluation of his behaviors. Peer Monitoring involves students monitoring each other and reinforcing positive behaviors. Instructional Choice is the provision of choices to the student as to which activity he prefers to do, or the schedule of what comes first or last in his task list. Being given choices makes the child feel powerful over some things, as he needs to commit to his own choice. In terms of gaining academic skills, one intervention is class-wide peer tutoring. Students are paired, provided the curriculum materials and take turns tutoring each other. To further reinforce the effectiveness of peer tutoring, points may be earned for correct answers, successful error correction and correct procedures (Harlacher, Roberts & Merrell, 2006). Another strategy is instructional modification wherein the student’s tasks are modified into shorter ones so he can easily complete them because they are more manageable and not overwhelming for his challenged attention span. Finally, computer-assisted instruction (CAI), a popular intervention among students today, makes use of computer-based software programs designed to supplement the teacher’s instruction while providing additional academic material. All these interventions have been found to decrease inattentiveness of students with ADHD as well as help them complete their tasks with more accuracy. It has also been found to decrease hyperactivity, disruptive behavior and increase their compliance to directions (Harlacher, Roberts & Merrell,2006) . It just goes to show that having ADHD is not a hopeless condition if there is enough support and patience for the diagnosed child. He can still function well in a mainstreamed environment. Children with special education needs and disabilities are fortunate to live in an age where their conditions are better understood so there is more likelihood that they will be helped. It is heartening that people from various disciplines as well as the government are concerned enough to reach out to children like them so he can still maximize his potentials, no matter how limited they may be. References American Psychological Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., rev,). Washington, DC: Author. Bauman, M.L. and Kemper, T.L. (eds.) (1994) The neurobiology of autism. Boston: John Hopkins University Press. Brown, T.E. (2007) New approach to attention deficit disorder, Educational Leadership Feb. 2007 Charlop, M.H. (1989). Teaching autistic children conversational speech using video modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22,275-285. Cheminais, R. 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