The Educational Model and the Concept of Behavioral Difficulties in British Education - Research Paper Example

1. Introduction According to Papatheodorou (2005, Pp. 27) 'the lack of consensus concerning the definition of behaviour problems highlights the complexity and difficulties encountered in the identification of behaviour problems and the planning for intervention'. Various theories centered on the study of child development have a common census on the fact that there exist contradictory opinions and beliefs regarding the definition of the term ‘behavioral problem. Several authors and researchers have their own independent versions of the term. But in common parlance behavior problem can be described as an extreme behavior on the part of the child, which is chronic in nature requiring immediate attention and care, and is largely considered to be inappropriate since it defies generally accepted socio cultural norms. The reason behind such differences in defining a common term include inappropriate association of behavioral problem with mental disabilities, purpose of defining the problem, difference of opinion amongst the academic scholars, theorists and professionals, etc. The term behavioral problem can be defined in different ways. For instance Apter & Propper (1986, Pp. 142) offer an ecological perspective of the term which suggests that the manner in which a child reacts or behaves is on account of emotional imbalance which is not a disease but an outcome of his / her disturbed eco system. Kauffman (2005, Pp. 32) states that “children with behavior disorders are those who chronically and markedly respond to their environment in socially unacceptable and or personally unacceptable ways” while Bowman, on the other hand, argues that children / students who are considered to be having behavioral problems have “unmet affective and social needs”. Such apparent disagreements concerning the definition of the term, further results in failure in identifying the problem and in establishing proper frameworks, policies and guidelines for resolving and correcting such problems which would help in assisting the children who are suffering from such disorders. 2. Theories and Discussion The concept of ‘Challenging Behavior’ is a socially constructed term which refers to unacceptable behavior and has been defined and explained differently by different authors, theorists and researchers. There is no common consensus regarding its scope or definition, owing to disagreements regarding the boundaries within which it falls i.e. social or mental health, hence rendering its validity as debatable. a. The Cultural Infection Theory The roles and responsibilities of upbringing of a child are not restricted to its immediate family but in fact extend well beyond the gamut of the child’s personal space to include the neighborhood as well as the community at large since they form an inevitable element of an individual’s childhood and play a significant role in determining the manner in which a child reacts to its surrounding i.e., individuals and situations. Similar beliefs have been documented by Garbarino (1992, Pp. 202) whereby he suggests that of the various factors that influence a child’s behavior, factors such as the characteristics of a larger environmental domain as well as that of the decisions made within such a domain are of great significance that shape the development of a child irrespective of the child’s age. There exists studies and empirical evidence which point towards the negative impact of community on individual behavior often leading to grave consequences such as adolescence delinquency, infant mortality, and child abuse (Booth, Crouter, Pp. 229 – 230). However, irrespective of such theories that suggest the significance and contribution of community and neighborhood on a child’s behavior which have both positive as well as negative outcomes the scope and extent of such an impact is debatable, particularly owing to a range of theories that challenge this belief. Brown and Medge (1982) negate the role of cultural values as hindrance to child development claiming it to be insufficient to influence individual behavior. Similarly Askew and Ronald (1988) claim that bullying behavior was more of a reaction to the influence of peer groups rather than community or neighborhood (Gray, Miller, Pp. 11). b. Role of Father and Mother as a Part of Family Pathology Model Nurturing a child is not restricted to feeding or clothing it but it has a deeper meaning which involves introducing the child to its environment gradually guiding it towards acting responsibly to those around him which includes his family, neighborhood and the community. The strict father model, a variant of the family pathology model explains the role of discipline in a child’s upbringing. The father sets strict rules for the child and communicates the type of behavior which is acceptable and punishes the child for wrongful behavior. The role of the father in this model is to reinforce behavioral rules and command respect and obedience from the child so that it grows to be a respectable self reliant individual (Lakoff, 2002, Pp. 311 - 313). Bowlby’s (1951, Pp. 53) attachment theory offers several interesting perspectives of a child’s developmental aspects which analyzes the role of the mother in the development of a child. He claims that during the early developmental years a child is totally dependent on his mother for performance of day to day tasks, she guides him by providing a suitable environment for growth, and acts like his ego or super ego. Thus, the development of a child’s ego and super ego are largely dependent on his primary human relationships. He further established the theory that in order for the infant and young child to grow up mentally healthy it needs to experience ‘a warm, intimate and continuous relationship’ with his mother, in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment (Bowlby, Pp. 13). Failure of such a model significantly affects the child’s social learning skills distorting their reactions towards the family, the neighbors and the community. c. The Role of Schools, Expectations and Teachers The educational model and the concept of behavioral difficulties in British education previously regarded ‘disturbing’ behavior of the student as an outcome of his / her personal emotional setbacks, however on review; it is now attributed to lack of proper disciplinary models in school. Studies claim that difficult behavior, often are an outcome of unrecognized or unmet special education needs (Jones, PP.147). According to a research carried out by Entwisle (1995, Pp. 142) on role of schools in early childhood development, it was established that early schooling had significant impact on children’s well being and social construction, since their achievements during this period is largely influenced by parents and teacher’s expectations and the practices adopted by schools in boosting the child’s performance. It is commonly observed that students with severe behavioral disabilities are often victims of abuse, rejection and neglect and often resort to socially unacceptable behavior since they are unaware about finding the right outlet to release their frustrations. In order to deal effectively with such students, the teachers must clearly communicate their expectations regarding acceptable behavior, and choice consequences in the classroom and avoid marginalizing such children by inappropriate reactions using blame, shame, and sarcasm to infuse obedience and discipline in them. i. Theory of Constructivism The theory of constructivism was put forward by theorists like Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori and Lev Vygotsky and is based on the belief that learning is not a product but a process and the quality and state of classroom environment, which may include among other things, minimizing and preventing the “occurrence of challenging behavior in children through the management of antecedent conditions that occasion these behaviors and through the teaching of alternative behaviors and skills” (Staples, Cochran, Pp. 141). It views children as active elements in the process of learning whereby they initiate most of the activities that are considered inevitable for their learning and growth. Thus a child is considered to be ready for school when s/he learns to interact with her/ his surrounding environment. Advocates of constructivist theory believe that children are often seen constantly interacting with people around them which helps them in learning gradually about various things even before they are taught about them in educational institutions. Language plays a significant role in the child’s learning process since as the child grows it learns to interpret the information in a more logical manner and hence it is claimed that a child learns more and better under adult supervision and help in classroom settings rather than on his own. ii. Social Modeling This theory offers a framework for establishment of efficient policies for imparting training and education to children in schools. It is based on the principles developed by Piaget and Vygotsky which suggest that the training imparted to students must co – relate to the child’s environment, and must be socially interactive. The development of such theories shifted focus to the school’s environment and there was an increasing emphasis of the study of role of schools in fostering child development. Studies conducted by Power, Willmott et al (1958) established the connection between student’s antisocial behavior, low expectations etc fostering delinquent attitudes among the students to schools educational framework (Gray, Miller, Noakes, PP. 12). iii. Social Interaction The social interaction theory perceives challenging behavior as a result of “failure of the society to provide appropriate services” as opposed to the widespread belief where challenging behavior or behavioral disabilities is considered as a personal tragedy. This theory propagates the idea that individuals with such disabilities must be offered appropriate support services in order to enable them to make their own decisions and choices “based on the sensitive interpretation of his/ her actions and attempts to communicate”. This theory is useful for assisting children whose challenging behavior is triggered off by a fear of social interaction. Studies suggest that schools where teachers used intensive interaction methods found it easier to deal with children with autism and other similar disabilities (Porter, Lacey, Pp. 145). d. Discrimination, Prejudice, language, Stereotyping, and Labelling Discrimination refers to prejudicial behavior against others and often implies involvement of hostility, labeling refers to grouping of individuals on the basis of their common characteristics. An expression of prejudice by teachers or educational care givers fosters negative feelings in the students and hinders their development similarly labeling could lead to adoption of certain behavior towards groups. In a pluralistic society like U.K, child care workers and teachers must ensure avoiding such behavior since teacher’s expectations is often reflected in the manner in which the student behaves (Brain, Mukherji, Pp. 161 – 162 and Curtis, O’Hagan, Pp. 2). e. Statementing Needs Legislation The 1981 Education Act (UK) witnessed the introduction of an integrationist charter, favoring inclusive education where disabled and non disabled children were offered equal educational opportunities in the same school. The statement passed in the legislation claimed to offer better access to consultation and mainstream education to disabled children but such statementing has caused grave inconvenience to the recipients of this benefit and owing to several pre conditions has deterred disabled students from gaining an entry into regular educational institutions, restricting them in special needs schools. It is of utmost significance to notice that statementing needs legislation should be unconditional in order for a child with disabilities to receive adequate facilities and care (Whittaker, Pp.13). f. Conflict Resolution, Anger Management, Towards Self Directing Behavior According to Page (2006, Pp. 345 - 346) “Conflict resolution skills are best learned by children when they are not caught up in the heat of their own conflicts”. Children should be provided adequate opportunities to practice and learn such skills by providing them proper environment to discuss the conflicts and seek professional guidance and help. Similarly anger management can be learned as any other social skill. Most often children consider anger as inappropriate and hence teachers should reinforce the belief that anger is a natural emotion and can be controlled through self control techniques. Lack of proper knowledge about anger management might lead to self destructive behavior in children which includes punishing oneself, exploding, sabotaging, etc. 2.7. Children’s Rights In U.K, students with disabilities and behavioral disabilities lack proper laws that ensure their right to inclusion in regular schools and continue to be turned down by educational institutions on the premise of protecting the rights of the majority. DfES in England, suggests that students with behavioral and emotional difficulties may be admitted in the mainstream schools if such admission does not compromise the rights of other children. It is considered unacceptable by law for schools to refuse admission to children considered to exhibit challenging behavior on the grounds that they should first be assessed for special educational needs (Wearmouth, Glynn, Berryman, Pp. 11 - 12). 3. Perspectives a. Developmental Perspective This perspective is based on one of the most conventional early childhood models which is based on the theory that a majority of a child’s early learning skills including physical, social, language and communication are acquired in a series of predetermined sequence i.e., during the motor development phase children usually learn to roll over, sit, crawl or stand prior to learning to walk. It propagated the belief that teaching children with disabilities in the same sequence would help overcome certain developmental disabilities or delays (Gargiulo, Kilgo, Pp. 208). b. Utilitarian Perspective This perspective deals with concerns of parents with children suffering from disabilities and acknowledges the possibility of a probable cost to the society which includes the cost of caring for the child and seeking professional support for its healthy upbringing. The concept revolves around fairness and the act of doing the right thing and maximizing happiness (Todd, Gilbert, Pp. 63). c. Compensatory Perspective Compensatory education is based on the perspective that early intervention and education can assist in reducing or eliminating the impact of environmental effects such as poverty and other risk factors (Gargiulo, Kilgo, Pp. 209). Vygotsky put forward the theory that underdevelopment or lack of adequate functions can be overcome by development of other higher levels of psychological functions and although it might have certain inherent limitations it can be compensated through better development of other functions. For instance, developing sharpness of hearing through training in a blind person, may be restricted to natural limitations of the individual but it can be compensated through development of the person’s mind i.e., imaginative skills, reasoning skills, memory etc. He believed that the utility of compensatory measures are likely to be devoid of any harshness or type of the child’s disability and hence could be used successfully while working with children with such disabilities (Kozulin, Pp. 204). 4. Models The models discussed hereunder are used to explain the causes, effects and explanations of challenging behavior encountered in schools today. Encountering challenging behavior in schools is common in U.K since studies suggest that 10 – 15 percent of children are identified with such disability. Of the various factors associated with challenging behavior, some of the most commonly found aspects include, impairments of vision or hearing, impairment of expressive and receptive language, epilepsy, attentional deficits, Autism, mental health difficulties, psychiatric disorders, and victimization through emotional, physical or sexual abuse (Davies, Pp. 45 - 46). According to Xeniditis (2001) the term challenging behavior was first introduced in North America in the 1980’s as a way of describing the problematic behavior of those individuals previously described as maladjusted or deviant. Emerson et al (1987) defined the term as “behavior of such an intensity, frequency or duration that the physical safety of the person or others is placed in serious jeopardy, or behavior is likely seriously to limit or deny access to and use of ordinary community facilities” (Dale, Thompson, Woods, Rae, Pp. 164). It is also defined as Behavior which forbids the child’s involvement in appropriate educational activities; segregate them from their surroundings; disturbs the learning and functioning of their fellow students; significantly curtail their chance for participation in common activities of the community; exposes the child or others around him in physical risk; places additional stress or burden on the teachers causing stress and discomfort in the process; and ultimately makes the likelihood of future placement arduous (Garner, Hinchcliffe, Sandow, Pp. 129). Historically there have been several distinct competing discourses in terms of social and behavioral sciences (Jones, 2001). Prior to the 1981 Education Act, which offered new guidelines and regulations regarding special education, the concept of disruptive behavior was associated with maladjustment and referred to as a subject of psychopathology. Hence most of the theories and ideologies conceptualized during that period propagated the need for offering a special environment, such as special schools, for the child identified with disabilities with a goal of developing a well rounded personality of such children. This theory based on medical grounds was received wide spread criticism in Britain during the late 1970s and the ‘medical model’ was then restructured whereby the concept of behavioral difficulties was redefined by usage and application of terms such as SEN (Special Educational Needs) and EBD (Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties) whereby the focus and hence the goal, was shifted to offering better educational facilities and ensuring satisfactory performance and achievement in schools. This concept was referred to as the educational model which combined ideas and perspectives from the medical model to include them in terms of educational context for better development of the child. There are four major theoretical models which include Maturational Model, Psychoanalytical Model, Behavioral Model and Cognitive Development Model (Koenig, Holbrook, Pp.136). Maturational Model This model is determined by biological factors and hence psychologists who support this model claim that genetic factors i.e., inherited strengths and weaknesses form a significant part of an individual’s developmental stage which is far greater than the significance of learned environment. Researchers supporting this model believe that a child develops through a series of sequences similar to his / her ancestors. Psychoanalytic Model This model was introduced by Freud in the beginning of the twentieth century and propagates the idea that human development occurs as a result of an individual’s need to satisfy basic instincts. It laid emphasis on the fact that the relationship between the parents and the child plays a significant role in the development of the child’s personality and helps in development of factors such as trust / mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt, industry, inferiority, self identity, role confusion, autonomy etc. Behavioral Model This model is based on the assumption that a child gradually develops by learning from his / her surrounding environment and that the influence of the environment in which the child grows plays a major role in his / her developmental process. Cognitive Developmental Model This model is based on the assumption that human development occurs through a series of qualitatively distinct stages, which always occur in a predefined sequence although it may not occur at the same chronological time (Lee, 2005, Pp. 565). 5. Conclusion The discussion and analysis of the various theories, perspectives and models discussed above point towards the volume of research undertaken in the field of child psychology and the need for better, efficient and affordable system in schools in U.K. that seek to facilitate integrated education so as to make available equal opportunities to children with disabilities. The discussion of various elements of challenging behavior offers a platform for researchers and academicians to develop methods to accelerate the learning process of such children and enhance their academic outcomes. Developing effective policies for ensuring child development is a strenuous exercise. The types of models explaining the challenging behavior are apparently limited in number and hence an appropriate strategy would be to analyze the outcomes of existing models and develop new ones which are child centric and advocate enhancement of learning outcomes of children with disabilities. References: Apter, S. J., Propper, C. A., (1986). Ecological Perspectives on Youth Violence, Youth Violence: Programs and Perspectives, Elmsford: NY, Pergamon Press, Pp. 142 Booth, A., Crouter, A. C., (2001). Does it take a Village: Community Effects on Children, Adolescents and Families, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Pp. 229 – 230 Brain, C., Mukherji, P., (2005). Understanding Child Psychology, Cheltanham, Nelson Thrones, Pp. 161 -162 Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal Care and Mental Health, World Health Organization Monograph, Serial #2, Geneva, Pp. 13, 53 Curtis, A., O’Hagan, M., (2003). Care and Education in Early Childhood: A Student’s Guide to Education and Practice, London, Routledge, Pp. 2 Dale, C., Thompson, T., Woods, P., Rae, M., (2001) Forensic Mental Health, Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain), Oxford, Elsevier Health Sciences, Pp. 164 Davies, M., (2000). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Social Work, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, Pp. 45 - 46 Entwisle, D. R., (1995). The Role of Schools in Sustaining Early Childhood Program Benefits, American Sociological Review, Pp.142 Garbarino, J. , (1992). Children and Families in the Social Environment, New York, Aldine Transaction, Pp. 202 Garguilo, R. M., Kilgo, J. L., (2004). Young Children With Special Needs: An Introduction to Early Childhood Special Education, Washington D.C., Cengage Learning, Pp. 208 – 209 Garner, P., Hinchcliffe, V., Sandow, S., (1995). What Teachers Do: Developments in Special Education, London, SAGE, Pp. 129 Gray, P., Miller, A., Noakes, J., (1994). Challenging Behavior in Schools: Teacher Support, Practical Techniques & Policy Development, London, Routledge, Pp.11, 12 Jones, R. A., (2003). The Construction of Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties, Educational Psychology in Practice, Cardiff, Vol. 19, No. 2 Koenig, A. J., Holbrook, M. C., (2000). Foundations of Education History and Theory, New York, AFB Press, Pp. 136 Kozulin, A., (2003).Vygotsky's Educational Theory in Cultural Context, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Pp.204 Lakoff, G. (2002). Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Pp. 313 Lee, S. W., (2005). Encyclopedia of School Psychology, London, SAGE, Pp. 565 Page, T. S., (2005). Promoting Health and Emotional Well Being in Your Classroom, London, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Pp. 345 - 346 Papatheodorou, T., (2005). Behavior Problems in Early Years, London, Routledge, Pp. 27, 32 Porter, J., Lacey, P., (2005). Researching Learning Difficulties: A Guide for Practitioners, London, Paul Chapman Educational Publishing, Pp. 145 Staples, R., Cochran, M., (2008). Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia, Westport: CT, Greenwood Publishing, Pp.141 Todd, M., Gilbert, T., (1995). Learning Disabilities: Practice Issues in Health Settings, London, Routledge, Pp. 61 Wearmouth, J., Glynn, T., Berryman, M., (2005). Perspectives on Student Behavior in Schools: Exploring Theory and Developing Practice, London, Routledge, Pp. 11 - 12 Whittaker, J. (2001) Segregated Schools Must Close, Pp. 13, viewed: March 6, 2009 from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/disability-studies/archiveuk/whittaker/segregated%20special%20schools%20must%20close.pdf List of Figures: Figure: 1 Examining Behavior (Source: Papatheodorou T., Behavior Problems in the Early Years, Routledge, Pp. 116) Figure:2 Construction of childhood Figure: 3 Understanding Behavior Figure: 4 Schools behavior management policy Figure: 5 Models of Human Development (Source: Koenig, A. J., Holbrook, M. C., (2000). Foundations of Education, AFB Press, Pp. 136) Read More