Class, Gender, Sexuality and Schooling - Essay Example

?READING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH of In their article, Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p. 3) provide research findings on masculinities and femininities of the youth within urban settings. This article is titled “Class, Gender, (Hetero) Sexuality and Schooling: Paradoxes within Working Class Girls’ Engagement With Education and Post-16 Aspirations” The research findings and discussion are presented by the authors with a view of illustrating how a qualitative research methodology is applied to obtain credible and informative data for the audience. According to Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 167), there are clear distinctions between the two gender identities: Femininities and Masculinities. It is in this regard that a qualitative methodology is applied to research and bring out these differences. More significantly, the implication of the differences in gender identities on the society and the behavior of the youth are described by the authors. It is argued by qualitative researchers that a methodological approach is an effective way of investigating and describing differences between people (Silverman, 2004, p. 59). It is in relation to this argument that Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 173) have focused in two major areas in their article. Firstly, the events in which young women participate in as compared to the male counterparts. Secondly the authors reflect on the social environment in general with an aim of demonstrating the views of the society on gender identities and gender roles. Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 170) employ theoretical perspectives and resources to interpret the data of the qualitative study. It is argued that a theoretical framework is used to add credibility to the discussion of research findings especially when a qualitative methodology is used to describe a social issue (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 9). The theoretical framework employed by the authors in their discussion is that of feminism. The authors describe the various categorization of feminism such as hetero-normative sexuality, heterosexual femininities and hyper femininity. Through the theoretical framework and research findings, the authors present the reader with three main arguments as described in the following sentences. Firstly, the disengagement of working class girls from schooling is mediated by the manner in which they construct hetero-femininities. Secondly, Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 169) point out that the ethnic diversity among inner city girls construct the capital which they acquire as a way through which they would generate self worth, identity and value. Lastly, the authors explain the reasons why the young girls invest more on glamorous appearance. According to Skeggs (1997, p. 124), identities are constructed through cultural and social theory. Skeggs (1997) discusses gender, class and culture in relation to feminism and argues that theoretical view of these issues in an effective approach for deeper understanding. It is therefore evident that Skeggs (1997, p. 145) presents arguments that are congruent with the postulates of Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p. p 176). This is exemplified by reflection that the modern society is characterized by changing power relations and gender roles. Skeggs (1997) further explains that gender and class should be fused so that the representation of power relations in the society can be understood fully. Nonetheless the information that is presented by Skeggs (1997, p. 170) is based on an ethnographic research. This author uses the works of Pierre Bourdieu and the feminist theory to describe the position that is occupied by the female gender within the modern society. The ethnography of gender and class helps in understanding the differences between the two gender identities within a school social environment. According to Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 178), the working class girls engage in heterosexual romantic relationships with their male counterparts and this is leading to negative implications on their academic pursuits. These authors employ the social cultural point of view to demonstrate how power relations between feminine and masculine gender identities cause these girls to disengage from schooling. The discussion of these authors is in line by the argument that education is basically a social institution (Ball, 2004, p. 15). In the book “The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Sociology of Education”, Ball (2004, p. 17) starts by describing education as a form of schooling. Nonetheless this point of view shifts to reflect on the contemporary educational environment which is more of a social engagement than a schooling process. For example the heterosexual romantic relationships which working class girls have with their boyfriends and their struggle to maintain power is a social concept which is causing disengagement from school activities (Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth, 2007, p 177). Peer groups are considered to be a determining factor for the level of student engagement in school activities. In this sense, social cultural theories are used to understand how the socialization process among students defines their success in school. On the other hand, the feminist theory helps in understanding how the gender differences, roles and struggles for power can affect the ability of active participation in school (Corbetta, 2003, p. 26). Generally, a theoretical framework is used by authors to describe how the social environment shapes the achievement of learning goals by students. Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p 167) present a culturalist analysis of class as a form of a qualitative research methodology in analyzing their findings. This form of analysis employs both theory and qualitative methodology in discussing research results. Through a qualitative approach, the authors conduct a credible research for two years. The qualitative data is gathered through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews as the data gathering tools. Moreover the authors gather data from photo diaries of the student participants. A sample of 89 young individuals within London urban schools is conducted during the qualitative research. In addition members of staff are interviewed so that sufficient data is gathered for interpretation. Through a qualitative methodology, the authors come up with three main points. These are investment in appearance, the paradox of boyfriends and the paradox of the “ladette”. The two paradoxes are particularly significant. The paradox of boyfriends is the form of capital that working class girls illustrate by investing in heterosexual romantic relationships with their boyfriends. This is described as paradoxical because the social cultural theories depict a reality in the social environment where the masculine gender identity is expected to invest more within a relationship. It is in this sense that it can be argued that these girls are advocates of the feminist theory. The paradox of “ladette” on the other hand is associated to the fact that the working class girls are investing their capital to buy their needs. This does not conform to the general belief that the masculine gender identity is required to provide (Repko, 2008, p. 33). The feminist beliefs also come to play within the paradox of “ladette” because these girls are demonstrating that they can be able to meet their needs without depending on the masculine gender identity. The description of urban ethnography and the youth a qualitative research methodology and theoretical frameworks are employed by researchers. Les (2005, p. 29) presents in his article “Home from Home: Youth, Belonging and Place” based on a combination of a wide range of research methodologies. Firstly, multimedia such as videos, photography, art work and written stories are used to acquire findings for analysis and discussion of issues of ethnicity and the youth within urban environments. Secondly, qualitative methods such as qualitative interviews are employed by the investigation. Thirdly, participant observation is used to acquire relevant data and information during the investigation. The research within this article was done within socially diverse, multi-ethnic and mixed gender of a sample of school children. The information that Les (2005, p. 51) presents within his article is made possible through a methodological approach to research including qualitative studies. A combination of research methodologies is effective when complex social phenomena and issues are to be investigated so that adequate information and data is gathered to achieve a comprehensive presentation of findings in a discussion. Les (2005, p. 31) argues that the manner in which the youth make urban centers their home is influenced by social, cultural and economic forces. Delaney (2008, p. 19) in his investigation of culture agrees with the arguments of Les (2005) in the following ways. Firstly, students’ ethnocentrism is acquired through learning their own cultures in relation to how they relate within a diverse environment. This means that cultural differences and social factors determine the choice of young people on how they would lead their urban life. Secondly, Delaney (2008, p. 83) discloses that there are social divisions within the society which makes the youth to choose leading a life that is congruent to the cultural and social beliefs of their ethnicity or race. Finally, Delaney (2008, p. 112) shows that experimental or methodological approach is the best way of understanding the ethnographic forces which shape the kind of life that young people lead within the urban centers. This author discloses this through the fact that he fully employed an experimental approach to come up with data and information for discussion. Therefore through the readings of these authors, the issue of ethnicity is understood in conjunction to the role it plays in defining the lives of young people in urban environments and institutions of learning in major cities. Les (2005, p. 63) describes the issue of race through the findings of his investigation on young people within urban centers. The author demonstrates that various spaces in city centers are preserved by specific racial groupings. Color coding within city spaces and prohibition of crossing boundaries are described by the author based on a combination of methods of research. Les (2005, p. 12) adds that consequences such as being beaten to death would emanate from crossing the prohibited social spaces. Dominant races such as whites are depicted as performing social injustices against the black ethnic group through bullying and unwarranted punishment. The effectiveness of the author’s research based argument is achieved through application of theoretical frameworks. The social cultural theories which define social justice and injustice are employed. Moreover the economic theories of superiority of an upper class of society over the lower class are used to further emphasize on the meaning of the finding. Denzin and Lincoln (2005, p. 53) in their book “Handbook of Qualitative Research” reveals that qualitative research is used to investigate and address issues related to social justice and the wider aspect of demarcations among racial groups. Racism and ethnography are among the aspects of social environments into which a qualitative approach to research is recommended (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, p. 64). More significantly is the fact that qualitative research methodology in investigating ethnography and social justice is linked to theories such as those of Foucault and Kent (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, p. 75). In this regard the use of qualitative research methodology and theory by Les (2005) is justifiable. In order to collect sufficient data on the manner in which young people occupy spaces within the urban centers, qualitative data was collected through careful observation and listening to discourses, rhetoric, registers and tropes (Les, 2005, p. 34). Through this methodology the investigator found out that a map is drawn by racism which defines the spaces that different ethnicities among young people occupy within the city. This is the reason why there are neighborhoods that are dedicated to specific ethnic groups. In order to achieve the cooperation of the young people, the researcher ceased playing the role of an objective investigator into dialogue with the participants. This motivated them to participate and contribute adequate information (Les, 2005, p. 47). Active recording of qualitative data contributed to the success of the investigation. In line within these illustrations, it is evident that ethnography is a complex area of research which requires a research to employ a combination of methods of investigation for accurate and comprehensive results. It is through this that the understanding of urban ethnography and the youth was made possible and presented to the audience (Les, 2005, p. 66). The above discussions are base on the application of research methods and theory by Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007) and Les (2005) in the topics Qualitative Educational Research: Masculinities and Youth and Urban Ethnography and Youth respectively. During the discussion similarities and differences were noted in the research methods, theory and the presentation and discussion of findings. The two articles are based on research findings and they focus on education among young people and the social, cultural and economic factors which define relationships. The similarities between both works include the fact that qualitative approach to research was employed to investigate a specific phenomenon in the society. It is argued that the credibility of an author’s discussion is achieved when it is based on scientific investigation (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). Such investigations must be based on methodological approaches that are relevant to the area of investigation. The investigators employed a qualitative methodology because of its relevance in understanding social phenomena. The presentation of findings is similar in both articles because the authors discuss findings in relation to theoretical frameworks. Moreover the authors design summaries of their findings in relation to the implications that the findings have on young people. The first difference between the article by Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007) and that of Les (2005) is that they address different issues among the youth. While the former addresses masculinities and the youth, the latter focuses on ethnography of the city and the youth. Nonetheless both of these issues are addressed among young people. The second difference lies within the methodological approach. Even though both articles present information that is based on qualitative methodology in research, Les (2005) employs a combination of many methods. This is because of the complexity of the investigation that he was conducting. While Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007) and that of Les (2005) employed qualitative approaches, the research approach by Les (2005) was more specific and combining of different methods such researcher participation in research, multimedia and observation. Plummer (2005, p. 77) in his “Documents of Life 2” argues that a researcher must not be restricted in the methodology that is to be used in investigating a phenomenon within a specific discipline. Plummer (2005, p. 80) further argues that researchers are at liberty of deciding upon the methodology that they find most useful in doing an investigation as long as it adheres to the ethics of research. It is in this regard that Les (2005) decided to cease acting as an objective researcher and became actively involved in dialogue with the young participants of his study. This is unlike the study by Halsall and Hollingworth (2007) which was more objective through interviews and questionnaires. References Archer, L., Halsall, A. and Hollingworth, S., 2007, “Class, gender, (hetero) sexuality and schooling: paradoxes within working class girls’ engagement with education and post-16 aspirations”, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 28, Issue 2, pp. 165–180 Ball, S., 2004, “The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Sociology of Education”, London: Routledge. Skeggs, B., 1997, “Formations of class and gender: becoming respectable”, London, SAGE Publ. Corbetta, P., 2003, “Social research: theory, methods and techniques”, London, SAGE. Delaney, C, 2008, “Investigating Culture: An Experiential Introduction to Anthropology”, Oxford: Blackwell. Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (Eds), 2005, “Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd Edn)’, Thousand Oaks: Sage. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S., 2003, “The landscape of qualitative research: theories and issues”, Thousand Oaks, Calif, London; New Delhi, SAGE. Les, B, 2005, “Home from Home’: Youth, Belonging and Place Plummer, K., 2005, “Documents of Life 2”, London: Sage. Repko, A. F., 2008, “Interdisciplinary research: process and theory”, Los Angeles, SAGE. Silverman, D., 2004, “Qualitative research: theory, method and practice”, London, SAGE. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M., 1998, “Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory”, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publ. Read More