The Development of E-Learning and the Knowledge Building Process - Essay Example

?Chapter 3: theoretical framework 3 Introduction This chapter describes the development of e-learning and the knowledge- building process where learners and teachers can better understand the learning process in the virtual world, facilitated by computers and Internet. What this paper reveals is two kinds of changes happening in the field of pedagogy. One is a shift from traditional pedagogy (teaching method) based on teacher-centred learning to one where the focus/control of learning is the computer (forum and activities). The second is an evolution of pedagogy from a system based on individualised learning to collaborative learning (social constructivism).These change are further explained in this paper as part of an emerging universal knowledge-building approach that envisages to give equal access and equal authority to all, in the process of knowledge building. This chapter presents the theoretical framework concentrating on e-learning and the associated theories. The focus is placed on the knowledge building theory presented by Scardamalia and Bereiter in 2006. But in addition, other theories are also discussed and integrated including the knowledge building theory of Girvan and Savage (2010), the blended e-learning theory of Sharpe et al. (2006) and the “participatory cultures” approach of Haythornthwaite and Andrews (2007). The theoretical framework presented is one that anchors itself in collaborative learning and computer and internet-centered knowledge building (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006; Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007). 3.2 terms definitions The following terms are important in the description of the theoretical framework; each is discussed and a definition is made for their use in the context of this work. 3.2.1 E-learning Haythornthwaite and Andrews (2007) have given the following definition for e-learning: “By e-learning research, we mean primarily into, on, or about the use of electronic technologies for teaching and learning. This encompasses learning for degrees, work requirement and personal fulfilment, institutional and non-institutionally accredited programmes, in formal and informal settings. It includes anywhere, anytime learning, as well as campus-based extensions, to face-to-face classes” (p.1). E-learning is defined by Garrison (2011) as “electronically mediated asynchronous and synchronous communication for the purpose of constructing and confirming knowledge” (p.2). Moving one step further towards interactive learning, it is also collaborative in practice (Garrison, 2011). 3.2.2 Blended learning In order to adapt and develop the teaching approaches, blended learning has been a concept that play important roles where the elements of the teaching and learning process differ from the traditional style, particularly with the approaches and attitudes involved (Sharpe et al., 2006; Harriman, 2004). Blended learning is “the full integration of face-to-face and online activities” in learning (Garrison, 2011, p.75). It is also defined as “the organic integration of thoughtfully selected and complementary face-to-face and online approaches and technologies” (Garrison and Vaughan 2008, p.148). Students learning in blended learning situations, as in some traditional methods, do not play a passive role and are expected to be active in using computer technology, interacting with each other on learning tasks and showing self-efficacy to learn. Likewise, teachers have different roles in encouraging, guiding and providing student feedback to assist them in presenting their unique understandings of events (within an e-learning environment) (Akyuz and Samsa, 2009). In the context of ICT-enabled learning, the concept of blended learning has many applications. The entry of web-based systems and applications into education essentially influences educational curricula and pedagogical approach, which consequently impacts on the development of all elements of the educational teaching approaches and more importantly on students' collaboration and interaction. From the literature reviewed in section 2.4.1 related to blended e-learning tools, it is concluded that ICT and the Internet are considered as the providers of affordance for developers of educational curricula. Blended learning thus specifically evolves into blended e-learning and provides the students with activities that are mainly dependent on computer skills and online communication (Holmes and Gardner, 2006; Sanchez and Salinas 2010). Similarly, teachers deliver educational tasks and materials through computer and online collaboration. By bringing their background knowledge and computer skills to study and learn in this new educational context, the students will be active learners and play a central part in constructing knowledge rather than passively receiving it as in the traditional classrooms (Owston et al., 2008; Sanchez and Salinas, 2008). Consequently, the curricula framework and components are enriched and enhanced by their representation in a web interface and environment as a digital form. Blended e-learning provides the educational process with new educational inputs and outputs that impact curricula and institutional and pedagogical approaches. 3.2.3 The forum The e-learning tool underpinning this research is the use of an online forum as an asynchronous approach for high school female students in Saudi Arabia. Forum is a generic method used in asynchronous e-learning environments as it provides an effective platform for asynchronous text and discussion (Gorge and Labas, 2008). Forum is useful in facilitating the construction of knowledge based on interactions and communication where the designed interface allows students to participate in learning activities by reading, posting text and discussing educational ideas (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1999; Zhang and Scardamalia, 2007). The forum has been viewed as a more effective replacement for face-to-face learning and has been seen as a platform where, “learners engage in such group processes as definition of the problem, development of working hypothesis, organization of the elements of the problem, agreement on research tasks and reporting back on research completed” (Kenny, 2007, p.254). The concept of a forum is also based on the “constructivist principles that the learning environment support and challenges learners' thinking and encourages testing ideas against alternative views and contexts” (Kenny, 2007, p.254). Based on these existing definitions and concepts, the researcher defines forum as: an electronic designed tool where a group of exclusive people interact and collaborate in synchronies and asynchronies modes, in order to explore further into their shared concerns, and learning goals. This kind of a forum represents the spirit of collaborative rather than cooperative learning. There is an important difference between these two concepts. Collaborative learning is anchored upon the process of working with each other, a process that involves personal involvement and contribution from each member of the group resulting in ideas evolving constantly (Myers, 1991). Cooperative learning on the other hand focuses on the end product rather than the process and thus provides less space for spontaneity and freedom (Myers, 1991). 3.3 Knowledge Building theory Teachers who incorporate ICT, media and Internet networks in the teaching process follow different pedagogical approaches compared with traditional face-to-face learning to support their students’ supervision, assessment and collaborative workings (Sharpe et al., 2006). The integration of ICT in education offers strong values in terms of pedagogical developments and developing skills to participate in global affairs and thus pedagogical aims will differ (e.g. communication methods and communication) from those related to traditional teaching and learning (Khirwadkar, 2007). Limitations of traditional educational model that stresses on “knowledge transfer” and “constructivist” approaches inspired Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) to offer a new “knowledge-creating” cultural theory enabled by new technologies such as Internet and other interactive forums. From the perspective of this theory, the Internet is viewed as “the first realistic means for students to connect with civilization-wide knowledge building and to make their class room work a part of it” (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006, p.2). Flow of information made possible in infinite directions and negating either a top-down or bottom-up approach, (yet incorporating both), is the core characteristic of this civilisation-wide knowledge building process. This theory has six themes of which four especially seem to be most appropriate to guide this study. 3.3.1 Knowledge advancement as a community activity: Students as learners play an important role in an asynchronous e-learning process generally and in forum activities specifically such as collaboration, interaction and discussion (Goerge and Labas, 2008). In this context, though the teacher can be the course designer and assessor of the learning objects and tasks, he/she can also encourage students to participate actively and effectively in the forum. Wenger (1998) introduced a model in which the learner’s journey through the e-learning process represents many steps that reflect communities of practice (CoP). Wenger (2006) has defined CoP as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.” Cop has also been defined as “collaborative, informal networks that support professional practitioners in their efforts to develop shared understandings and engage in work-relevant knowledge building” (Hara, 2009, p.3). There is a strong relationship between instructional design and the sense of group where students express a strong feeling of community during the e-learning process and consequently they report better instructional design (Shea and Bidjerano, 2010). In previous research, several scales have been developed to measure CoP among learners (Rovia, 2002). These scales can be used to assess and test the level of a sense of community among learners and thus evaluate to what extent the student gained interaction, satisfaction and social feelings during the e-learning process. Cop provide students with the advantage of “multiple perspectives” that will assist them think about and arrive at alternative answers to specific problems (Anderson and Felici, 2012). This view of knowledge as a community or civilizational activity rather than a highly scholarly activity (limited to a few brilliant minds) leads to the conclusion that knowledge can be created in classrooms (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). As cited by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006), there have been many instances of new vision and new dimensions of knowledge emerging once the use of Internet was introduced into the classrooms. There have also been instances when students contributed new insights and improvements to knowledge (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). In the process, learning becomes a social activity and collaboration, the key word (Lindh and Soames, 2004). Learning will also motivate further thinking processes as the multiple perspectives gives rise to new questions. Each act of conversation and collaboration will also enhance community bonding among the involved students, which again can strengthen and evolve the multiple perspectives involved. 3.3.2 Knowledge advancement as idea improvement: Another major aspect of this knowledge paradigm, as put forth by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006), is that knowledge building is not always an enterprise of finding out a truth but an improvement upon ideas that pre-exist. Haythornthwaite and Andrew (2007) stressed the importance of social groupings around the act of learning in order to provide a space or forum for the exploration of knowledge. In other words, instead of the authority-of-knowledge model, what Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) develops is an equality-in-knowledge model, made possible by a forum like Internet and a model by which a great levelling is effected between the inquiries of great scholars and novice students. Both become party to the discourse within knowledge and about it. The knowledge-building activities of both are acknowledged as improvements on existing knowledge base and expansion of its present boundaries. Improvement on existing knowledge rather than arriving at ultimate truth, becomes the key to this new paradigm (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). For example, when a Biology student discovers a specific breeding habit of an insect by way of close observation, and shares this information through any internet forum, it has the potential to become highly valuable input for well-established entemologists even. In a traditional setting where internet was not there, this information though observed by a student might have remained unshared and thus unacknowledged until an entemologist decides to specifically study that insect species' breeding habits. Similar occasions may arise in all disciplines and this is why knowledge advancement in this theoretical model is seen as idea improvement. 3.3.3 Knowledge advancement as collaborative learning: The importance of student-created knowledge in collaborative environments to the learning of other students has been duly acknowledged (as cited in Lindh and Soames, 2004, p.174). There are also other positive sides to collaborative learning. Collaborative learning has positive effect by establishing social relationship, sense of community, increasing motivation, reducing drop outs rate, and encouraging global and multicultural interaction and cooperation (Lindh and Soames, 2004, p.175). Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) have identified the function of education as to “enculturate youth into the evolving knowledge-creating civilization and to help them find a place in it” (p.2). Thus, Collaboration is the process by which communities of practice can remove the “communication problems between” and among them (Anderson and Felici, 2012, p.58). Collaborative learning is not altogether a new concept as people have been teaching and learning through interactions within collaborative groups that are mostly informal in nature. When viewed from the perspective of pedagogy, “collaborative learning aims to engage learners in active construction of knowledge through exploration of ideas in peer-to-peer communication” (Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007, p.83). It is true that when the formal education scenario evolved, learning became a limited activity that happens and revolves around the individual. When the knowledge creating cultural model and the community of practice approach are applied to learning process, it becomes necessary that the forum evolves into a cultural environment rather than a formal learning environment. This is the point where cooperation is replaced by a better idea, namely, collaboration. It is here that the “participatory cultures” approach of Haythornthwaite and Andrews (2007) gains relevance. This is a shift from “teacher-centric to student-centric learning” and also a step ahead from collaborative learning towards a more holistic definition (Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007, p.82-83). The computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) has been the term used to represent collaborative online learning but the concept of “participatory cultures” provide a more integrated and organic definition (Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007, p.83). The emergence of non-technical persons as a considerable majority among computer users and the resulting social practices prompted researchers to view the technologies that facilitated online learning as “technologies of participation” (Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007, p.83). This is also in view of the fact that Internet along with social media bring about “reflective, attentive and (at least) dyadic interaction” (Haythornthwaite and Andrews, 2007, p.91). From the perspective of the theoretical framework of this paper, the Internet is viewed as “the first realistic means for students to connect with civilization-wide knowledge building and to make their class room work a part of it,” which is an advanced outcome of collaboration (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006, p.2). Haythornthwaite and Andrews (2007) have also pointed out that a major characteristic of e-learning is that “it can provide 'universal' or global coverage” (p.225). Flow of information made possible in infinite directions and negating either a top-down or bottom-up approach, (yet incorporating both), is the core characteristic of this civilisation-wide knowledge building process that develops from collaboration. 3.3.4 Knowledge advancement as constructive use of authoritative information: Girvan and Savage (2010) have further developed the model put forth by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) and observed, “communal constructivism” is becoming a new pedagogy in the use of computer-enhanced virtual worlds in education. Girvan and Savage ( 2010) qualitatively analysed the data obtained from a study that involved five learner groups who interacted in virtual worlds and helped generate “chat logs, learning artefacts, post-activity semi structured interviews, and researcher's observations.” The inferences drawn from this analysis suggested “learners collaboratively constructed knowledge for themselves as a group and for others, as the features of the pedagogy emerged” (Girvan and Savage, 2010, p.3). The process of “self-regulated learning” has to go in line with with this collaborative discourse because apart from oneself, and to a limited extent, the teacher, no other authority looks over this knowledge-construction process (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). It is the collaborative construction of knowledge that results in the development of a new pedagogy (approach to teaching). What started as Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments in universities, and gradually evolved into concepts like “Knowledge Forum”, can be viewed as a practical situation where this model is applied (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) were envisaged as an interactive and collaborative network of two levels, the first level being the individuals in “universities, cultural institutions, service organizations, businesses /simultaneously building knowledge within their primary groups” and the second level being mutual interactions and collaboration between individuals of these groups in the same process of knowledge building (cited in Snowman, McCown and Biehler, 2011, p.359). These knowledge-creation platforms make possible construction of knowledge through interaction whether it is in a school or within a research community or among communities (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). CSILE was considered as intentional as students in this learning environment, “ learn how to set goals, generate and interrelate new ideas, link new knowledge to old, negotiate meaning with peers, and relate what they learned to other tasks” (Snowman, McCown and Biehler, 2011, p.359). The cognitive effects of CSILE was studied by many researchers (Lipponen and Hakkarainen, 1998; Neto and Brasileiro, 2007) who concluded that the “knowledge-building pedagogy” that emerged out of this technology-enhanced environment is student-centred, improvement- oriented, and collaborative (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). This study which focuses on interaction and communication between students using an online forum for achieving a particular learning task in the geography curriculum, is an example of this contructivist approach to knowledge and pedagogy. This newly designed forum can achieve a particular learning task in the geography curriculum through collaborative discourse that leads to improving on the existing knowledge, which is actually a process of contruction of new knowledge (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). It is the technology involved and the online nature of the forum that makes this aspect applicable to this situation (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). For example, a geology student can create an easy-to-understand graphical design of different soil strata using computer-enhanced tools and his own creativity and this will amount to construction of knowledge rather than simple learning. The design created by this student can become a standard model for other students and can even be accepted as a model by teachers as well. Every student involved in the endeavour of learning thus become equally important because it is unpredictable who is going to find out some new information or arrive at a new idea that can contribute to the knowledge-construction activity in its totality. As this research is focusing its attention on an online forum for female high school students in Saudi Arabia, aged between 17-18 years, this model is especially relevant. This relevancy comes from the ability of the forum to give these students, who are living in a society that imparts many restrictions on its female population, access to world-wide collaborative discourses of knowledge-building which in a traditional educational model, they cannot access. As the teacher will put a project for them in the forum to allow them to learn, share and improve upon knowledge, they will become parties in the construction of knowledge offering a culturally unique and new perspective that had remained hitherto unexpressed owing to social restrictions. As Zhang, Scardamalia, Reeve and Messina (2009) have suggested, this small group of students can be developed into a loosely bound network of groups in “opportunistic collaboration, with small teams forming and disbanding under the volition of community members, based on emergent goals that arose as they addressed their shared, top-level goal of refining their knowledge” (p.7), of their geography curriculum. 3.3.5 'Knowledge of' in contrast to 'knowledge about': The theoretical model of Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) has also placed “knowledge of” model above the traditional “knowledge about” model. It is the textbook knowledge that imparts an individual, the knowledge about something but it is through sheer practising that knowledge of something is acquired, according to Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006). For example, the Internet and similar interactive platforms provide the students with access not only to the geographical information about a place but also its pictures, videos, realistic and three dimensional Google maps, socio-cultural information, and even access to the people of that locality and the people who have studied that locality. This is the essence of the “knowledge of” model as the student internalizes the knowledge involved in all its possible representations/dimensions (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). Further, the enhancement of the “knowledge of” learning system is envisaged through “problem-solving” rather than theorising and application of reason (Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). Discourse, especially involving collaboration between many parties, has been viewed as the pathway to achieve all these by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006). This proposition by Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006) is not applicable to this particular study as in a participatory and collaborative learning environment, 'knowledge-about' is equally important to 'knowledge-of' ( Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006). 'Knowledge-about' will be the first step that gets improved into 'knowledge-of' as collaboration and computer and internet use evolves and reaches a higher level. Sharing of knowledge and improving of knowledge are equally important to this theoretical framework. Sharing of knowledge belongs to the 'knowledge-about' realm and improving knowledge belongs to the 'knowledge-of' realm. Similarly, the 'problem-solving' alone cannot suffice to address the knowledge-building needs of learning. It can be only one method while theorising and reasoning can also be valid methods that can be applied in required combinations. This is so because the collaboration and improvement of knowledge discussed in this framework already presuppose existing theories and solutions that can be improved upon. 3.3.6 Understanding as an emergent Understanding as an emergent is the sixth concept in this theoretical framework but this theme is not relevant for this paper. The concept of emergent relates to the non-static, constantly changing nature of understanding and represents an integration of community of practice, collaborative interaction and common understanding (Amin, 2010). It is explained that “understanding will be an emergent product of the discourse” that involves collaboration and use of ICT (Amin, 2010). This concept is not relevant to this study because in its theoretical framework, understanding is never an end product but only the evolving process involved. For example, the students who interact using the forum are not expected to arrive at a certain kind of understanding that is solid and fixated. Instead, the forum gives them a dynamic learning experience that will go on evolving and in the process also evolve the nature of understanding. The student develops their interaction skills by reading, replying, posting texts or messages and discussing varies points according to their computer knowledge background and self-efficacy and through all these they will acquire a new yet non-static perspective on understanding (Peters and Hewitt, 2010). When student interaction is developed and increased through the learning process, understanding will also be understood by them as a collective consciousness (Schellens and Valcke, 2006). In the e-learning process, student performance and cognition are impacted by self-efficacy and skills, particularly computer and Internet skills thus requiring certain structural necessities for better understanding (Girasoli et al., 2008). Hence, at least in the initial stages of e-learning, as suggested by Salmon (2000), understanding is a precondition for moving into the next steps and also an end by itself. Understanding thus will become a product as well as a process, instead of acting as a final outcome. 3.4 Conclusion The e-learning forum can simultaneously facilitate collaborative learning in a participatory culture mode and also develop a new pedagogy of learning in the process. The notion of 'construction of knowledge' has to include 'improvements of knowledge' as well into its fold as part of this approach to pedagogy. The resulting pedagogy is universal, multicultural and collaborative and also in spirit, resembles a culture rather than a model. This pedagogy is centered around computer, internet and ICT. Knowledge building theory in four of its six themes can be used as a framework for this study. It was explained in details in this chapter and justifications of reasons behind using it were provided. In addition, justifications of refusing the last two themes were also provided. Additional reference (please add these to your reference list) Amin, T.G. 2010. 'Constraining knowledge building: The limitations of 'progressive discourse' ', Human Development, vol.53, pp.153-159. Myers, J. July 1991. 'Cooperative learning in heterogeneous classes', Cooperative Learning, vol 11, no.4. Read More