Greek Cultural Contributions - Essay Example

GREEK CULTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS Culture refers to the set of social norms, values, mores, traditions, activities, religious beliefs and cult, festivals, language, dresses, philosophy, art and literature adopted, observed, produced and followed by the individuals of a society or community belonging to some specific geographical boundaries or region within the prescribed period of time. Every social set up maintains unique ideology and cultural traits that make it different from other societies. The world is the amalgamation of countless cultures, among which ancient Greek culture and civilization enjoy imperatively distinctive traits and sublime characteristics. It has not only introduced innovative ideas, theories and intellectual contributions in the cultural traits, but also determined new ways in the fields of art and architecture, music, literature, recreation, sports, wisdom, knowledge and religious beliefs. The history of Greek culture is regarded from the pre-Hellenic era that sprang full-grown into being like the fabled deity who leapt from her parent’s head. (Mackenzie 1996) The Greek civilization is one of the ancient-most civilizations of the world at large along with Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, Iranian and Indian cultures and civilizations. Ancient Greece is considered as the first country of the globe that witnessed unification of the state under the dynamic administration of the ancient times. The Medieval emissaries of the Catholic Church brought to Great Britain a continental universality based on Greek classics, which influenced European history, culture, politics and social system. (Graves 1960) The contributions of Greek culture on Western Civilizations can be studied under the headings of philosophy, religion, literature and language: Philosophy: Greek culture has indelible imprints of its valuable philosophical works in the growth of wisdom and foresight on the one hand, and spreading the light of divergent disciplines and subjects on the other. It is therefore, the history of contemporary Western philosophy seeks its roots in the works and philosophies presented by Thales (ca. 640-546 B.C.), Anaximander (ca. 610-546 B.C.) and Anaxagoras (488?-428 B.C.) Thales, one of the seven ancient Greek sages, is stated as the founder of naturalistic orientation in logic as well as the first person to introduce mathematics, geometry and astronomy as the systematic disciplines of study. Thales declares both these disciplines above-mentioned as an essential thing for the mental and intellectual growth of individuals. It is Thales, who contemplated on every object of nature minutely and viewed water as the most necessary element for the perpetuation of life, and everything, according to him contains water in its formation. The modern science also proves the same fact that everything has large amount of water in its composition. He also invented the method of measuring an object on the basis of its shadow. Thales’s views got popularity everywhere in the world of knowledge and his famous student Anaximander continued his theories on naturalistic orientation and expanded the notion of elements. Anaximander had imperative command on Geography and Astronomy. He is said to be the first geographer to prepare the map of the world. It is boundless space of the universe, according to him, that contains multiple elements in its fold. He saw eye to eye with the Thales’s proposition that the sun, the moon and the stars revolve round the earth. He is said to be made a valid prediction of solar eclipse around 528 B.C. without using mechanical devices and technology which is in vogue at present day. “Anaximander was the second philosopher of the Ionian school, which was particularly interested in cosmology. The shape and size of his map are difficult to envisage from the accounts. Whether Anaximander taught that the earth was spherical or cylindrical has also been a point of contention among classical and modern authors, the direct evidence on his cosmology is contradictory.” (Hecatæus of Miletus: 500 B.C.: Retrieved in ) The theories articulated by the seven sages of Greece provide guideline to the future generations of philosophers, logicians and thinkers for centuries. The element of morality and religion came in the Roman philosophy with the teachings of renowned philosopher and ethical moralist Zeno. It is Zeno, who drew out a complete code of social and moral values to the ancient Rome through his ideas and logic. He considered the implication of morality an essential matter to keep a social set up in perfect order. The martyr of philosophy i.e. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) is thought to be one of the greatest scholars the world has ever produced. Father of western philosophy and sign of vigilance and wisdom, has erected the foundation of his theories on the principles of truth, justice, knowledge and wisdom. He always laid stress upon the significance of seeking wisdom and knowledge. The gist of his theory lies in the fact, that everyone must submit that he knows nothing, because countless pearls of vigilance, exist under deep ocean of knowledge, are concealed from his superficial thoughtfulness and ordinary vision. Like Zeno, Socrates also regards moral values as the symbol of survival for humans. He considers moral values as debased ones without applying transcendent principles by the humans living in a society. Socrates developed inductive method of logic, and generalized his ideas according to the natural phenomena by keenly observing the structure and functions of these objects on daily basis and predicting the outcomes out of his observation and perception. Like Thales’s students, Socrates’s pupils including Plato, Xenophon, Chairephon and others. Plato made further development in the philosophical ideas of his teacher. Plato was always eager to discover the cause, effect, nature and formation of each and every thing existing in his environment. (Apology) He extended the naturalistic orientation on the footings of the ideas presented by Socrates and promoted his ideas regarding the reformation and construction of human society son the principles of equality, justice and egalitarianism. Plato looks for the standardization, objectivity, universality and utility of knowledge, without which, according to him, the structure of the whole society including moral values and social norms, would be in serious jeopardy. Furthermore, Plato also presented his Theory regarding the Immortality of Human Soul, according to which human soul does not contain permanence; rather, it is the product of the chemical formation of different organs of human body. Plato’s renowned student Aristotle has worked on almost all the living disciplines and subjects; it is therefore he is called the father of all disciplines including natural and social sciences. Aristotle is the very first thinker to organize and administer the laws of logic in a systematic way, and presented logic as a methodical science. Not only this, but also he used abstract symbols in place of words to draw out relationship between variables within propositions. Aristotle declares logic as the science based on the true principles of thought, and submits induction and deduction as two ways of acquiring knowledge. He also invented the term syllogism while describing deductive methodology of logic. The thought, according to Aristotle, is dependent of scientific demonstration and observation of natural as well as human phenomena. Aristotle also invented the principles of metaphysics, poetry, politics and many other social, physical and natural sciences and provided the future generations with complete and comprehensive guide-line for imitation and discovery of new horizons in the field of knowledge and wisdom. Hence, modern philosophy seeks its roots in ancient times and takes after Aristotelian school of thought as its foundation. Modern philosophers include Machiavelli, Kant, Hobbes, Marx, Hegel, Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Mill, Strauss and others, who illumined the world by their valuable works and significant contributions. All these philosophers and thinkers have focused their attention on human liberty, freedom and equality, and strived for individual respect and equal chances of growth for all members of a society on the patterns of Greek philosophic works. Religion: Being one of the most ancient as well as most sublime civilizations of the world, Greek culture has also influenced the religions and faiths of the future civilizations. The concept of know thyself is also attributed to Thales, which was followed by many future religious beliefs. Humans have formed their own beliefs (called probability belief in mathematics and science) about the set of unknowable elements of the universe.  They have branded their beliefs about the unknowable as religion. (Acharya, 2006) Since religion is a highly diversified subject, different societies maintain different religious faiths and beliefs. The ancient Greek civilization is thought to be the era consisted of the period of nearly six centuries from 750 B.C. to 150 B.C. The people believed in gods, goddesses and warriors like Zeus, Hera, Hebe, Neptune, Pan, Aphrodite, Adonis, Cupid, Hymen and many more. They believed that gods and goddesses are the source of inspiration, power and strength. Every god and goddess had specialty in his area, as Cupid was the god of love, while Pan had been attributed to the god of jungles, fauna and flora. Zeus was the king of all gods and could adopt shape of any creature for his purpose. The gods and goddesses were always engaged in wars and battles usually on petty matters. An overwhelming majority used to live in under-developed hill and mountainous areas, which helped in building their muscles and made them hard and strong. The ancient Greek political system was also developed in the imitation of divinity; thus, the system was monarchical in the structure, and the rulers were sovereign and despots and controlled the political system with the help of power. Almost all the future monarchs all over the world were set up on the pattern of Greek monarchy and mythology. Literature: The ancient poets including Homer and Virgil gave literature new directions. Homer presented his great epic poetry under the title Iliad narrated the wars of gods, goddesses, and kings, while Socrates infused new hopes in the Greek society by preaching virtue and ethics and spreading the light of wisdom and knowledge. His predecessors continued his job, and Plato described various dimensions of religion and other forms of belief. Aristotle applied his wisdom and skills in almost all the subjects and disciplines and articulated theories of political science and art as well. The philosophers also differed in beliefs and ideas as Socrates did not have belief in rebirth, while Plato declared it the process of attunement. The life style also changed in ancient Greece and people constructed houses, built mansions and castles and developed colonies. Similarly, Homer’s magnificent work under the title Iliad left remarkable influence on future of the west. All the epic poets including John Milton even got inspiration from Iliad while writing his wonderful epic Paradise Lost, where he sought the support of Seven Muses in the beginning of his epic in these words: “Sing heavenly Muse, that on the secret top, Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire, That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, In the beginning how the heavens and Earth, Rose out of chaos: or if Sion hill….” (Paradise Lost 1.6-6) In the same way, The description of gods and goddesses inspired Medieval, Classical and Romantic poets alike. Shelley and Keats often portray Greek mythological characters in their poems. Keats’s Ode to Psyche and Ode to the Grecian Urn reflect the ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer and Virgil. “O brightest! though too late for antique vows, Too, too late for the fond believing lyre, When holy were the haunted forest boughs, Holy the air, the water, and the fire; Yet even in these days so far retird. From happy pieties, thy lucent fans, Fluttering among the faint Olympians, I see, and sing, by my own eyes inspired.” (Keats: Ode to Psyche) The description of Demeter, the Greek goddess of seasons, fertility, harvest, agriculture and grains, to portray parental love and devotion can be seen in English and French literatures, because she had unabated love for her beautiful daughter Persephone, the Maiden of Spring, who was abdicated by Hades, the god of the underworld, while she was gathering the buds and flowers. In the same way, D.H. Lawrence and Oscar Wild referred to the king Zeus and Ganymede while portraying same sex passions in individuals. The famous Oedipus Complex, included by renowned Psychoanalyst Sigmud Freud, has also its roots in ancient Greek civilization, where Sophocles has portrayed the fateful end of the kind Oedipus Rex. “Child, who bare thee, nymph or goddess? sure thy sure was more than man, Haply the hill-roamer Pan. Of did Loxias beget thee, for he haunts the upland wold; Or Cyllenes lord, or Bacchus, dweller on the hilltops cold? Did some Heliconian Oread give him thee, a new-born joy? Nymphs with whom he love to toy?” (Sophocles: Oedipus Rex) Aristotle (384B.C.—322 B.C.) has discussed the kinds and nature of poetry in his wonderful Poetics (written in 350B.C.). According to him, there are two main varieties of poetry: 1. The Fine, and 2. The Mean. He has placed epic and tragic poetry in the fine variety, and the satire and comedy in the mean variety. Thus the great philosopher considers Tragedy and Epic a refined form of expressing one’s views and ideas. It also shows that Tragedy has been declared a sophisticated piece of art. Looking at the history of the literature of the world, we come to know that Greek, Persian and English literatures have been the pioneers and example for the imitation to the writers and poets all over the globe. And it is Tragic poetry and prose that enjoys the status of the most valuable material produced. Though Comedy has also been a popular way of the expression of one’s feelings and emotions, yet it is lagging far behind in comparison with the applause won by the Tragedy. The works produced by Sophocles, Virgil, Homer, Milton, Shelley, Keats, Emily Bronte and others represent the best and the most stupendous Tragic works and was imitated by all the poets of the continent of Europe. REFERENCES Graves, Robert. The Greek Mythology Penguin Books 1960 Mackenzie, Donald A. Crete & Pre-Hellenics The Guerney Press Co Ltd 1996 Porter, Jene M. Classics in Political Philosophy. Second Edition. Prentice-Hall Canada. 293-402 1997 Snell, Melissa. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Quoted in http://historymedren.about.com/od/burckhardt/a/cri_i8.htm) http://classics.ucdavis.edu/1/Classics_1/notes2.html Plato. Euthyphro: Translated by Benjamin Jowett. 380 B.C. (Quoted in http://philosophy.eserver.org/plato/euthyphro.txt) Plato. Apology http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/socr.htm http://www.reemcreations.com/literature/socrates.html Henry Thomas & Dana Lee Thomas. Great Philosophers. Bhavan’s Book University Bombay 1971 Sophocles, Bernard Knox, “Oedipus the King.” Washington Square Press, 1st Edition, New York, 1994. Read More