Chemical Detection Technologies Operational Considerations Of First Responders Unit - Essay Example

Chemical Detection Technologies- Operational Considerations of First Responders Unit Student’s Name Institution Affiliation Chemical Detection Technologies- Operational Considerations of First Responders Unit There are constant threats of terrorists’ attacks in the world today, and thus the need to identify some ways to detect the chemicals. Hernandez-Rivera (2007) stated that the government and other involved bodies could counter the all the different terrorist attacks by use of diversified forms of chemical detection capability in those particular areas. Additionally, the food and water are highly exposed to chemical warfare agents (CWAs) that are mostly targeting the military personnel and other installations. Hakonen et al. (2016) also observed that currently there are other CWAs known as nerve gases that are increasingly used during the terrorist attacks. Unlike the other CWAs, the nerve gases are difficult to detect with the conventional procedures. As a result, there is the necessity to undertake any possible analytical methods to identify the wide varieties of CWAs as well as their reactions such as hydrolysis and degradation within the chemical environments. Past research gives various techniques of determining the CWAs such as the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) that detects this nerve gases among others Past research provide different techniques of identifying the CWAs such as the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) that detects this nerve gases (Hakonen et al., 2015). This research identifies the first responders’ chemical detection technologies during operations. With the ongoing threats of terrorist attacks, the military and other armed forces need to know the different methods to deal with threats of CWAs. When a terrorist attack that includes the chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) materials occur, it means that it is likely explosive. Moriarty (2017) observed that such bombs occur to disseminate the additional materials which end up causing a lot of the people in danger of due to the CBRNs. As a result, such incidences require immediate emergencies to mitigate the hazards. Notably, it is highly challenging to participate in CBRN terrorism especially if there are high threats scenarios and therefore it requires the common and dynamic approach to finding solutions. It is necessary to have on-site monitoring and detection during warfare to be able to manage the wars and counter war that involves CWAs. Seto (2014) stated that the CWAs were first discovered in the World Wars I and II and also Cold War period. Surprisingly, their production has continued henceforth after the conflicts were resolved. For instance, during the 1980s, the country of Iraq utilized the sarin (GB) and mustard gas (HD) during their war with Iran. As a result, in 1992, there was a treaty that prohibited the use development, stockpiling, and production of CWAs. Later in 1997, the agreement mandated the destruction of any stockpile of these harmful gases. Other cases where these [poisonous gases have been used are such as a Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo utilized GB in 1994 Matsumoto attacks and Tokyo subway in 1995. These two incidents killed and poisoned a lot of vulnerable individuals, in fact, 113, 120, which is a substantial evidence of chemical world terrorism (Seto, 2014). Further Silvestri et al. (2017) stated that in the USA, after the September 11, 2001, terrorist detraction, there were instances of biological terrorism when the five people were killed using anthrax spores sent in the form of letters. Consequently, there were CWAs attacks witnessed in the Japanese military facilities that were leaked to the Samukawa containers leakages. Additionally, the Japanese governments had health issues such as neurological disorders caused by intake of the Kamisu water. Such symptoms are believed to be due to the arsenic vomiting agents (Seto, 2014). Hence, there is a universal need to create a safe and secure environment by allowing the authorities to establish protocols and techniques of identifying the appropriate ways of handling CWAs. Seto (2014) identifies that crisis management of the CWA requires their disposal and deployment to protect such forms of terrorism and whole human population especially, the health and military workers from them. Additionally, the military can undertake the consequence management which is simply the on-site detection by the first responders through protective gears. Later on, the samples can be taken to the individual laboratories for analysis to significant the mitigation procedures that can help save a life. Consequently, the responders can undertake incidence management where they perform the laboratory analysis whose reports are later used as evidence of court proceedings that curb future crimes. Apparently, even the forensic science laboratories are successful in analyzing the specimens that are found in the casualties and on the site. The most used techniques in the laboratories to identify the toxic substances are preliminary rapid screening tests, instrumental analysis using the hyphenated mass spectrometry (MS), and sample pretreatment (Silvestri et al., 2017). Nevertheless, some other technological, analytical methods have been developed to deal with each type of CWAs. Currently, some analytical procedures have been identified to detect the chemical agents. Hernandez-Rivera (2007) stated that some of the remarkable ones are the vibrational spectroscopy (infrared or Raman) which can give accurate chemical information. Apparently, the procedure can even detect the CWAs remotely. Most importantly, the Raman spectroscopy can distinguish molecules with high similarity degrees. Figure 1 shows how the Raman technique identifies CWAs (Hernandez-Rivera, 2007). Seto (2014) identifies that rapid on-site detection is significant since it allows counterterrorism schemes that successfully deal with any possible forms of disaster by saving the time that would rather be spent on transporting the specimens. Onsite detection technologies are many and to be applicable for the first time responders, some factors have to be considered. The factors include accuracy, sensitivity, operational performance, and response and recovery time. Most importantly, no detector has ever given the satisfactory performance, and that is why the scientists continue to find better ways of dealing with the process. A study by Landström et al. (2015) used the Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) to analyses the substrates that they believed that was contaminated and decontaminated. Some of the substrates that were involved in the process were different types paint systems of Chemical Agent Resistant Coating (CARC) and Si wafers. The methods showed no detection limit for the diffusion of the contaminant present in the CARC and Si paints. However, in the plain paint cover, it was easy to sense the phosphate emissions using LIBS. On the other hand, in the presence of P=O, C-O-P, and P-F vibrational bands the ATR-AFTIR was able to show the sarin (GB) and Soman (GD) and break down these products (Karr, 2013). In short, the LIBS technique promised to monitor the diffusion process on the one-paint matrix. Figure 1 Raman spectra of 1,6-diclorohexane obtained at different excitation lines- Source Hernandez-Rivera 2007 Consequently, Hakonen et al. (2016) observed that the nerve gases are polar organic liquids during the ambient conditions and the majority is organophosphorus esters that are similar to the insecticides. For instance, VX in Figure 2 is a member of the most toxic V-series CWAs which is ten times more deadly than the infamous GB. Notably, there are others nerve gases such as the Tabun (GA) of the G-series agents, and it has sarin-like toxicity. All these gases are irreversible and inhibit enzyme acetylcholine esterase which causes the buildup of acetylcholine and loss of signal within the nervous systems. Apparently, one single droplet of the VX causes human death within the first 15 minutes, and it has long term effects on the environment. Since these gases have extreme toxicity, their experiments are done only in certified laboratories, and it is safe for humans. Figure 2 Molecular Models of VX (a), Tabun (b), Superhydrophobic Gold Nanopillar (~ 5*5 Mm) (c & d) and Water Droplets (2µ) (e & f) -Source Hakonen et al. 2016 SERS molecular analysis is done to ensure since it brings out highly attractive properties such as sensitivity while dealing with the nerve gases. The first time responders should use the method since it has been successful in the past to disintegrate conjugated nitro explosives into attomolar levels. The scientist discovers that a substrate surface has high droplet adhesion and nanopillar clustering caused by elastocapillary forces that result to target molecules enrichment for the plasmonic hotspots with the SERs enhancement (Karr, 2013). There are other constant CWAs which are containing the phosphate ester bonds that are believed to be the most deadly to the humans. Mondloch et al. (2015) noted that during the recent military global missions such as when they were disarming Syria discovered these chemical agents and were plenty sure that they needed practical strategies to destroy these CWAs. In this case, solutions were given people immediate protection through procedures such as filtration and also the catalytic killing of the airborne forms of the agents. Additionally, the military was required to destroy all the bulk of chemical weapon stockpiles, wear protective clothing, and coat buildings, equipment, and containers of the agents to prevent spilling. First of all, if the material is robust and heterogeneous, then it can be modified and activated using the carbon or any other metal oxides so as it can give the desirable features that are allowing the destruction of the CWAs. Nevertheless, they are also other issues such as the level effective active site that can constrain these processes. Mondloch et al. (2015) concluded that the Lewis-acidic ZrIV ions offer an active site that allows the scientist to access the agents and therefore bring out the efficiency of the process. A study by Hendricks et al. (2014) showed that the use of the portable spectrometers is relevant because it will be able to carry out in situ chemical analysis of the target samples in undistributed natural environments. Figure 3 shows that the instrument is a wearable backpack (10kg) with a geometry-independent low-temperature plasma (LTP) ion source joined to a hand-held head unit (2kg) that allows analysis and sampling. Apparently, the detection of the CWAs, illicit drugs, stimulants, and explosives is shown in nanogram levels that are directly surfaced in real time including the compound geometries which are heat-sensitive together with those bearing complex sample matrices. Notably, this instrument has an average power of 65 W which operates under a battery power of 1.5 h from the first pump-down manifold. The absolute mass-to-charge is 925 Th with the resolution of 1-2 amu and full width (fwhm) for the mass range (Hendricks et al., 2014). Figure 3 A Portable Mass Spectrometer- Source Hendricks et al. 2014. Notably, the majority of the devices used to detect CWA are mostly ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) which clearly dissociates the atoms using various velocities in the electric field. Additionally, the IMS has also succeeded in detecting other products such as the illicit drugs, explosives, and currently, the toxic industrial materials (TIMS) (Eiceman, Karpas, & Hill Jr, 2013). The shape, charge, and mass of an ion enable it to move in the drift region during ambient conditions in an electric field. When the length and strength of the electric field are maintained, then the ions in the drift mobility are seen as a "signature." The IMS technology has some advantages such as rapid analysis, low limit of detection (LOD), and high sensitivity. Additionally, no sample preparation when dealing with gases CWAs, however, when dealing with the vapor ones the LOD of CWAs is synthesized at parts-per-billion (ppb) to low parts-per-million (ppm) levels for few seconds. On the other hand, the solid and liquid samples go up to the few nanograms (10-9 g) to enable chemical detection (Eiceman, Karpas, & Hill Jr, 2013). Though IMS is non-selective, it requires high identification over to be able to separate the ions. As a result, it is the best non-selective technique since it can detect broad ranges of chemicals and at the same time classify them. Most of the IMS instruments operate in the atmospheric temperatures. Another analytical technique that can be successful in first responder chemical detection is the infrared spectroscopy. Infrared wavelengths are part of the many electromagnetic radiation waves which is differentiated from the others such as the gamma rays by the frequency and wavelength range. Infrared detectors use the actinic infrared radiation to detect and identify it (Karr, 2013). There are two types of sensors; the one type that detects the infrared through emissions such as when using the infrared cameras. The other one is the use of the objects that expose the absorbed infrared such as the infrared spectroscopy. This technique is analytical and enables the detection through the characteristics of absorption of the infrared at specific wavelengths and on the substances of interest. Notably, the functions groups of molecule vibrate with their specific frequencies within an infrared region (Landström et al., 2015). In short, the molecular structure of the infrared radiation is determined by the radiation frequencies of the function groups composing the molecule. On the other hand, the first time responders can use the Surface acoustic wave (SAW) for the management, transmission, production, and receiving of the acoustic waves on the piezoelectric substance. Notably, for more than five decades now the telecommunications industry has SAW technology. The SAW equipment in mobile cellphone and the band station technologies are band-pass filters which since most usages such as pressure, humidity, temperature, torque, and chemicals (Ayankojo et al., 2016). The first device to be used to sense CWAs was first witnessed in 1979 by Woltjen and Dessy. Since then, the production of SAW technologic devices to act as chemical detectors is below the expected level internationally. The examples include the Joint Chemical Agent Detector JCAD) by the US military. Figure 4 shows how the SAW technology works of a substrate (Ayankojo et al., 2016). Figure 4 A Molecular Imprinted Polymer (MIP) Using SAW Technology to Identify Sulfamethizole (SMZ) – Source Ayankojo et al. (2016) According to Ayankojo et al. (2016), the SAW chemical detectors promise a viable future if they are aggressively developed. At the heart of the SAW device is the piezoelectric crystal plates that are generated and surfaced on the piezoelectric substrate when the electrical field is applied. Some changes occur on the substance depending on the propagation path affect and wave frequency. Consequently, when dealing with the amount of CWA loaded in the piezoelectric substrate use of the vapor exposure can help in identification. The SAW devices are advantageous over the other technologies because they are produced at a low cost despite having an excellent detection capability. The response is very rapid, and the SWA devices are under continuous developments through the aggressive research and developments. Joint chemical agent detector (JCAD) enables the soldiers to conduct ground vehicle CWAs detection. Laljer (2003) noted that the majority of the countries have active weapon programs all around the world and unfortunately it is spread to the third world countries. As a result, the soldiers in the shared services are likely to encounter the CWAs and toxic industrial materials (TIMs) in any place all around the world. The JCAD, Figure 5, is a small instrument of (40 in3) with a light weight (2 lb.) that is positioned in the interior areas of the human protections gears, aircraft, ships, among other fixed locations (Laljer, 2003). The JCAD helps the Joint services in detection across different warfare settings through efficient resource use. Once JCAD senses the chemical agents, it provides both the visual and audible alarms to create awareness to the operators. In short, the equipment enables the soldiers using vehicles to fight and survive CBRN wars. Figure 5 A Joint Chemical Agent Detector (JCAD) - Source Laljer 2003 Many studies look into the flame ionization and photoionization CWA detection techniques. These two methods are standard since they have an excellent sensitivity and response to dynamism. In fact, the methods can discover the set of chemicals that are dissociated and bring out the sum of CWAs present in a particular sample. Apparently, they are non-discriminative and hence no specific detection (Moo & Pumera, 2015). Nevertheless, these procedures are not very useful outside the laboratories walls due to their nondiscriminatory nature. Their usage in the field is mostly for volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). Notably, both techniques measure current dissociated species by the atom collectors. For the photoionization method, the scientist dissociates the molecules with high energy photon such as the ultraviolet (UV) radiation. On the other hand, the flame ionization method heats the organic molecules using a hydrogen flame which resembles that of flame photometric detection (FPD) which ionizes the decomposed fragments. Photoionization detectors (PIDs) and flame ionization detectors identify the ions in similar ways. When the electric field is added to the ions, the ions move to the electrodes from where the signals can be processed (Macey et al., 2014). However, the two processes have differences since PID does not destroy while FID destroys the material used for detection. In the recent world, there are other forms of detectors such as the colorimetric detectors which analyze the color changes of the chemical reactions. Examples of such practices are the litmus paper which tests the PH values of particular solutions. Another one is the common water test kit that checks the chlorine concentration within the swimming pools. These tests are not manipulative since once the contents of the solution reach the litmus papers, it gives an exact PH value (Eiceman, Karpas, & Hill Jr, 2013). While using the colorimetric detectors, they are made into tubes and badges which signal the color transformation through the people eyes rather than the electronic devices. As a result, they are advantageous since they are simple, use no electric power, and are less costly. The devices are designed to be selective so that they can react to only a certain specific class of chemical compounds. For instance, a badge can be made to detect phosgene and therefore will detect just only that in the whole environment (Seto, 2014). In short, the process safer since it does not give false alarms though many sensors are required for a particular field operation. On the other hand, the military can use other paper kits such as M8/C8 Detector paper which tests H-type blister, G-, and V-type nerve agent’s liquids. Notably, these papers do not detect vapor and change to green, red, or yellow in response to the agent encountered in a particular fluid (Pacsial-Ong & Aguilar, 2013). Another paper sensor is the M9 Detector Paper which specifically turns reddish when it meets the blister and nerve agent’s liquids. Unfortunately, the M9 does not specify the type of agent or sense the vapor agents. The M256A1 Detector Kit detects and identifies gas agents within blood, nerve, and blister agents. Just like the other papers, when a chemical reagent occurs with the chemical agents, the M256A1 paper changes its color, and it can identify the types of these agents. The M256A1 paper is very delicate and identifies even the agents that are below the IDLH levels (Pacsial-Ong & Aguilar, 2013). Finally, there is the C-2 Detector Kit used mostly by the Canadian Military to sense the CWAs in the vapor. The C-2 uses the colorimetric tubes to identify the choking, blood, nerve, and blister agents. Just like the M256A1, it can sense the agents below the IDLH levels (Pacsial-Ong & Aguilar, 2013). Another current procedure is the use of flame photometry which is an atomic spectroscopy that deals with light emissions phenomenon of the excited atoms. This CWAs technique has been utilized for a very long time, and it is very successful. In this case, the phosphorous and sulfur excited atoms are used to identify the presence of the CWAs such as the G-agents, sulfur mustard (HD), V-agents since they contain them. Additionally, this procedure can detect the presence of TICs so long as they have sulfur, arsenic, phosphorous or other atoms that brighten in the presence of light emissions (Landström et al., 2015). According to Macey et al. (2014), another successful technique is the vapor generation which looks into the different procedures of production of CWAs. Given that terrorists are aware of the ability to detect the CWAs they might result to using other techniques that are less accessible. As a result, they are developing instruments that can detect the toxic materials as well as those that less toxic is necessary to combat the issues. In the current situation, no perfect detector can comfortably deal with the chemical detection, and that is why there is a gap for more improvement. The additional instruments for detecting the CWAs are the mass spectrometers (MS) and gas chromatography (GC). According to Pacsial-Ong & Aguilar (2013), MS and GC are laboratory instruments that are used by skilled lab technicians to analyses and report about the results found on the CWAs. Apparently, few have been designed to be used in vans and handheld units within the field of war. Nevertheless, the technicians must collect the specimen and bring it to where the instrument is located. In the current world, GC and MS are the only devices that can show nerve agents concentrations below the exposure limits. CWAs Detection Requirements Until recently, the CWA exposure was primarily the work of the soldiers who experienced the chemical attacks in the battlefield. However, due to the increased terrorist attacks, the CWA detection has become a civil emergency response. It is common to see the detectors being used to monitor the presence of any CA in the atmosphere to come up with the appropriate level of protection for the civilians (Laljer, 2003). Notably, as much as the world requires these CWA detectors, they have to operate in real-world that is demanding for portability, cost, and time efficiency. Also, these sensors must be operational throughout and specify the type of CWA that is affecting the surrounding environment. Currently, there is an issue of identifying the chemical agent needed amongst the other agents that already present within the environment. Further, the detection requires high sensitivity that can give advanced warning of the CWAs concentrations and levels (Pacsial-Ong & Aguilar, 2013). Ideally, when selecting the appropriate detector, then one has to consider the detection capability and performance factors such as response time. In brief, there are a lot of terrorist activities undergoing all around the world. Worst, these attacks are becoming more and more hazardous to the people due to the use of harmful chemicals such as the CWAs and the CBRNs. These chemical agents require that the authorities come up with efficient analytical techniques that can aid in their mitigation. Over the years various methodologies have been identified. Among them are the SERS, FPDs, PIDs, Colorimetric detectors, flame photometry, flame ionization, SAW, photoionization, and infrared spectroscopy among others. All these techniques are successful; however, each has a down fall, and that is why there is still room for the development of a better procedure. References Ayankojo, A. G., Tretjakov, A., Reut, J., Boroznjak, R., Öpik, A., Rappich, J., ... & Syritski, V. (2016). 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