The Affects of Agent Orange - Research Paper Example

Your Module 6 March The effects of Agent Orange Agent Orange is a common for one of the six “Rainbow Herbicides” and defoliants which were used by the United States army during the war in Vietnam. The herbicide was a part of the chemical warfare, the goal of which was to destroy the crop lands and defoliate certain areas of the country. The name comes from the orange stripe used to label the barrels containing the chemical. Comparing to other “Rainbow chemicals”, Agent Orange was the most extensively used. Being a herbicide, the compound was employed in the United States, Korea, Canada, Australia and Brazil (Hay 151). Talking about the chemical composition of the Agent Orange, it is a 50:50 mixture of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (Scheme 1). Scheme 1: Phoxyacetic acids that form Agent Orange (Claus and Walters, 148). Series of studies were undertaken in order to evaluate potential effects of Agent Orange and its production by-products on health. Let alone the mixture that form Agent Orange, 2,4,5-T is highly toxic and there is a substantial amount of evidence regarding its possible effects on health and environment. In late 1960s it was revealed that 2,4,5-T usually contained dioxin (TCDD), which was more toxic then 2,4,5-T. This information allowed to explain a number of properties attributed to Agent Orange. Scheme 2: Production of Agent Orange components and unwanted side reactions (Claus and Walters, 148). 2,4,5-T was synthesized by Robert Pokorny in 1941. Subsequently the compound was extensively studied and patented as a weed killer. Later, the spectrum of its applications increased as well as the amount of publications and patents regarding this product. 2,4,5-T was in production from 1950 to 1979. During that time Dow Chemical was the largest company producing this chemical for agricultural purposes. Taking the production from the lab into industry led to the formation of the highly toxic dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) as a consequence of a side reaction (Scheme 1). The first step of the process is the reaction between 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene and sodium hydroxide to afford 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxide (2,4,5-TCP)(Scheme 1). The formed product would then react with chloroacetic acid at 1400C to yield 2,4,5-T. Temperature control is critical for both processes, because at 1600C 2,4,5-T can participate in a self-condensation reaction leading to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)(Heaton 1996). In the second half of the 20th century no precautions were taken to eliminate the formation of this dioxin. As a result, seventeen thousand people were exposed to this dangerous by product in Italy during an accident on a chemical plant near Seveso in 1976 (Eskenazi, et al., 2003). When such precautions were taken it was difficult to maintain the required temperature in the industrial scale reaction vessel. For this reason dioxin was a consistent by product in the 2,4,5-T production. Its quantities were measured in parts per million, and according to initial legislation had to be no higher than one part per million. Later the limit was pushed to 0.1 ppm and 0.01 ppm in the United States and UK respectively. In order to meet this requirement better temperature control was introduced and the formed dioxin was removed from 2,4,5-T (Hay 160). Talking about toxicology of dioxin and the components that form Agent Orange, according to Arthur Galston’s extensive review published in 1979, TCDD in trace quantities was able to bring up serious health issues in test animals. Dioxine is the primary toxic compound of Agent Orange. Its presence was able to promote chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), soft-tissue sarcoma and both Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s types of lymphoma. Exposure to Agent Orange leads to increased chances of acute myelogenous leukemia in the children of the US soldiers who served in Vietnam (Schuck 19). Another study, conducted in 1969 exposed the toxicity of 2,4,5-T. This chemical was able to cause stillbirths and birth defect in mice. Also, continuous exposure to this chemical promotes cancer. According to the study conducted in Hamburg, Germany the cancer mortality almost doubled among workers working with 2,4,5-T for more than ten years (Dwyer, John and David Flesch-Janys, 1995). The most extensive usage of Agent Orange came during the war in Vietnam. Between 1962 and 1971 nearly 78 million litres of various defoliants and herbicides were sprayed by the United States army in Vietnam, part of Cambodia and Laos as part of its chemical warfare programme. This spraying was called “Operation Ranch Hand” and the primary objective of which was to destroy crop lands thus cutting food supply to guerrillas, defoliate jungle and clear the land near American military bases (Spencer 156). Also, by destroying crop land the US army enforced urbanisation, because the peasants were no longer able to support themselves and had to move to cities which were controlled by the US army (Stellman 685). There were two primary ways in which spraying was conducted, either from Fairchild C-123 Provider airplane, which could hold up to 3.800 litres of Agent Orange, or from low-flying helicopters. There were also cases when boats, portable units and trucks were used. Picture 1: Spraying Agent Orange in Vietnam(BBC News). Talking about the area of operation, Agent Orange was mainly used in South Vietnam. The first spraying mission took place there on the 9th of January, 1962. Overall, Operation Ranch Hand includes more than six and a half thousand spraying missions, most of which took place in South Vietnam (Hay 156). Picture 2: Agent Orange area of operation. Orange zones are contaminated. (BBC News) The spraying ended in 1971. By that time approximately 20% of South Vietnam had been sprayed. The rate of spraying exceeded the recommended for the use in the US by 13 times. As a consequence five million acres of forest and ten million of crop lands had been destroyed. Also, in some areas the concentration of TCDD exceeded safe levels by hundreds of times (Luong 4). Another important consequence of using Agent Orange is famine in South Vietnam. Initially, it was believed that crop lands were used to grow food for guerrillas, consequently the US army intended to destroy 85% of the crop lands. Food crops became the target for the US army in 1962, but the existence of the programme was acknowledged in March 1966. As it was discovered those destroyed lands supported mainly the local peasants. Without land to support them, hundreds of thousands people were left starving or malnourished. During the war in Vietnam a number of international experts opposed chemical warfare as it could possibly leads to unexpected side effects in both humans and environment. In 1966, United Nation charged the United States for violating the Geneva protocol which prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons. Talking about the effects Agent Orange had on the population of Vietnam, nearly five million people were affected by this chemical. As a consequence, half a million of children born with birth defects. As it was stated by the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs the extensive use of Agent Orange elevated the number of cases of stillbirth and miscarriage in both humans and domestic animals. According to Vietnamese doctors men who fought in South Vietnam is likely to give birth to defected or dead children. Children affected by Agent Orange usually manifest a range of diseases. There were cases of mental disabilities, extra fingers of both hand and legs and cleft palate. Generally, people of Vietnam manifest higher rates of various forms of cancer and skin diseases. The list continues by mentioning people in the most affected regions of South Vietnam and Cambodia who manifest a number of genetic diseases. The United States soldiers who fought in the sprayed areas were also exposed to substantial amounts of Agent Orange. Afterwards they manifested nausea, internal bleeding, severe skin rash and headaches. As a result, The United States banned Agent Orange use in Vietnam. 2,4,5-T was banned in 1985 but 2,4-D is still used today (Luong 68). Picture 3: The effects of Agent Orange on the people of Vietnam. After returning to the United States, Vietnam veterans manifested a series of unusual medical disorders similar to those developed by the population in Vietnam such as respiratory, skin or digestion disorder. Veterans who served in South Vietnam manifested higher rates of both non-Hodgkin’s and Hodgkin’s lymphoma, various forms of leukemia. Prostate, throat and lung forms of cancer along with soft tissue sarcoma were very common. These conditions are known to be the effects of Agent Orange and dioxin exposure. In many cases their children were born dead, aborted, or born with defects (Schuck 76). The most heavily exposed are the people conducted loading of the planes and helicopters used in the Ranch Hand Operation. Along with them substantial exposure suffered the military personnel that mixed the herbicides and worked with equipment used in the operation. Others in line are those who performed defoliation from air and personnel who cleared the perimeter near the bases. Because of the severe exposure and consequences associated with Agent Orange, Vietnam veterans began to demand compensation, but in most cases their appeal was refused. By 1993 only 1% of the claims were approved and the veterans received the compensation (Hay 58). Dioxine is extremely hard to remove from the environment. It enters soil and consequently, food chain through fish and animals that feed in the sprayed areas. Transport mainly occurs through erosion and wind. Because it affects animals and humans, biomagnification and bioconcentration is common in case of dioxin. For this reason former US airbases where the chemicals were stored till present day present health threat. For example, the present level of dioxine in the Da Nang airbase is 350 times higher than internationally accepted as safe (Stellman 686). Agent Orange and dioxin that it contained also affected ecology of Vietnam. Because nearly 20% of the territory was sprayed the damage to the environment is hard to underestimate. Half of the mangrove vegetation and 5% of hardwood forests were destroyed. Reforestation is impossible in many regions because toxic dioxin is extremely hard to remove from soil, progressive erosion caused by lack of trees, or because of competition from grass or bamboo. Spraying also lowered animal and bird species population. According to Daniel Chiras, a biologist from Harvard, spraying lowered the diversity tenfold (Hay 78). Agent Orange rises an international issue with a “latency period”, possible effects still manifest after years of exposure. Scientists from the United States and Vietnam along with 11 other countries have discussed the possible measures that will allow better understanding of the effects that dioxin has on health. Both countries agreed to put more effort in researching the problem and evaluate ecological and environmental problems associated with dioxin and Agent Orange. The breakthrough came in 2006 when United States President George W. Bush visited Vietnam. He agreed to address the issue of environmental contamination in close vicinity to former United States military bases. Till present day thirty two million dollars were invested in clearing the dioxin contamination (BBC Mobile). Works cited BBC Mobile. US helps Vietnam to eradicate deadly Agent Orange, 2011. Web. 17 June 2011. Dwyer, John and David Flesch-Janys, “Agent Orange in Vietnam". American Journal of Public Health 85.4 (1995): 476. Print Eskenazi, Brenda, Paolo Mocarelli, Marcella Warner, Larry Needham, Donald G. Patterson, Jr., Steven Samuels, Wayman Turner, Pier Mario Gerthoux, and Paolo Brambilla. "Relationship of Serum TCDD Concentrations and Age at Exposure of Female Residents of Seveso, Italy". Environmental Health Perspectives 112.1 (2003). Luong, Hy. Postwar Vietnam. Singapore: Pasir Panjang, 2003. Print. Hay, Alastair. The chemical scythe. New York: Plenum Press, 1982. Print. Heaton, Alan. Pesticides. London: Blackie Academic & Professional, 1996. Print. Jacob, Claus, and Adam Walters. “Risk and Responsibility in Chemical Research: The Case of Agent Orange.” HYLE-International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry 11.2 (2005): 147-166. Print. Schuck, Peter. Agent Orange on Trial: Mass Toxic Disasters in the Courts. Harvard. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1988. Print. Stellman, Jeanne. “The Extent and patterns of usage of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam.” Nature. 422 (2003): 681 - 687 Spencer, Tucker. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: Political, Social and Military History. Santa Barbara. ABC-CLIO, 1998. Print. Read More