The Development of Motivation Theory in Business - Essay Example

The development of motivation theory in business Introduction The productivity of an employee is a function of his/her ability and the motivation to work. Therefore, it is imperative for the administration of a firm to motivate employees to excel at performing their tasks. Researchers have indicated that employee motivation is dependent on organizational variables such as organisation structure and working conditions. This paper explores the main motivation theories proposed by various researchers in the field of motivation (Torrington 2002). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Maslow’s theory asserts that people are motivated by the quest to satisfy their needs or deficiencies. Maslow grouped needs into five categories with the needs occurring in a specific hierarchy where the lower needs had to be satisfied before advancing to those of higher order. Maslow’s order of needs was arranged as follows: Physiological needs –safety needs- social needs- egotistical needs- self actualisation needs Physiological needs are basic survival needs like food while safety needs are personal security needs such as the need for a steady job. Social needs are social acceptance and support needs while egoistical needs are desires by an individual to be valued by others. Self actualisation is the aspiration by an individual to acquire the finest out of his/her abilities. From the hierarchical system, Maslow deduced that those needs which had already been satisfied no longer provided motivation for action (Torrington 2002). Due to lack of empirical support for Maslow’s theory, Alderfer postulated the Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) theory, which condensed Maslow’s needs to three. These three needs were existence or physical survival needs, relatedness or social needs and growth or need for personal growth and development. Alderfer, however, did not insist on a hierarchical system rather he claimed that the needs ought to be experienced simultaneously. Alderfer’s theory got more appeal from practitioners and had greater empirical support. Though the needs theory has limited empirical support, some of its assertions like the self-actualisation principle have gained currency among managers and executives who perceive this high level need as a potent motivator (Pinnington and Edwards 2000). Herzberg’s two-factor theory Herzberg claimed that motivation emanates from the job itself and not from other external characteristics. He explained that those factors leading to job satisfaction or motivators are distinct from those that cause job dissatisfaction; that is, hygiene or maintenance factors. The hygiene factors are factors surrounding the task which do not lead to satisfaction but prevent dissatisfaction if well maintained. Examples of such factors are job status and remuneration (Pinnington and Edwards 2000). Motivators, unlike hygiene factors, have a direct positive impact on the work situation and facilitate improved productivity. Motivators include the pleasure of achievement, increment of responsibility and opportunities for career advancement and promotion. Herzberg’s assumption of independence between motivators and hygiene factors was mostly controversial among researchers, and his claims lacked empirical support. The effect of his theory on organisational structure was that many jobs were redesigned to allow for employee participation in planning, performance and evaluation of their work. This made organisations to focus attention on the importance of giving employees tasks that were relevant to their abilities (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y McGregor’s theory is an extension of his ideas on motivation to the direction and control of employees at the workplace. Theory X articulates that people are not keen on work and tend to avoid work where possible; as a result, employees must be induced and supervised with severe penalties imposed in order for them to perform effectively. Theory Y asserts that people tend to regulate themselves in order to complete the tasks assigned to them. People seek responsibility and are capable of creative problem solving. Theory Y is more rational and presents a more accurate portrayal of human behavior since it represents the relationship between individual and organisational goals. However, McGregor’s theory does not offer a complete explanation of employee motivation (Marchington and Wilkinson 2005). Hackman and Oldham’s task enrichment theory The task enrichment theory is premised on three psychological states needed to boost a person’s motivation and job fulfillment. These states are experience of work as meaningful, experience of work responsibility and insight in job performance. The more intense the experience of the three states is, the higher the individual's motivation will be. Hackman and Oldham also identified five task characteristics that lead to the above motivational states. These characteristics include type of skill, type of task, importance of the task, autonomy and feedback on performance. The fundamental premise of this theory is the perception that the need for personal advancement, creativity and the presence of challenges has a very important impact on employee motivation. In addition, due to differing individual drives and needs, different employees respond differently to the same task (Needham and Dransfield 2004). Cognitive theories Equity theory The basic tenet of equity theory is that people are motivated to achieve a condition of equity or fairness in their transactions with other individuals and with the organisations they transact with. People make judgments between their inputs and the outcome they receive. They assign weights to these inputs and outputs according to relevance and importance, and the total sum of the input/output ratio is key to motivation. If perceived inequality exists, then individuals try to reduce or change one of the elements of the ratio such as reducing their effort. Its shortcoming is its inability to predict people’s perception of the equality of their specific situation, but it has highlighted the importance of equal compensation for the same effort (Needham and Dransfield 2004). Goal-setting theory This theory assumes that people’s behavior is motivated by their objectives or goals. It emphasizes certain behaviors that are likely to improve performance like regular feedback on performance, assigning employees more challenging tasks and setting specific goals. It also endorses self-set goals over organisation set goals as key to better performance. This theory is very relevant to the workplace and is well supported by empirical evidence (Paul 1996). Expectancy theory This theory was proposed by Vroom. The theory explains how rewards impact behavior through focusing on internal cognitive states that lead to motivation. In essence, people are motivated to action if they believe those behaviors will lead to the outcomes they want (Paul 1996). Evaluation of the most significant development in motivation theory The most significant development in motivation theory is the emergence of goal-setting theory. This is the theory that was readily accepted by management practitioners and was supported by empirical evidence thereby appealing to researchers in the field of motivation theory. Goal-setting theory was championed by Locke and Latham. They posit that the most effective performance occurs when goals are specific and challenging. When goals are used to evaluate performance and linked to feedback on results, they create commitment and acceptance. However, the motivational impact of goals is moderated by ability and self-efficacy. Goal oriented learning leads to better performance than performance based learning. Group goal setting is equally important to individual goal setting (Paul 1996). Skinner argues that goal setting is the fundamental aspect of all major theories of work motivation. Managers have widely endorsed goal-setting as a means to enhance high performance. Several studies have indicated that employees who are assigned specific, difficult but attainable targets outperform those who are given easy or nonspecific goals. Mitchell in his review of motivation theories concluded that goal-setting is the most researched area in the subject of motivation (Latham 2007). Motivation is reflected by psychological processes that indicate arousal, direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary actions. Therefore, given a defined goal that the employee accepts, the effect of that goal on the employee’s behavior is mediated by motivational processes. Arousal is boosted by the difficulty of the task while persistence is influenced by the duration of time spent trying to reach the goal. Finally, goal setting induces the development of task strategies and more complex tasks call for more complex strategies (Latham 2007). Conclusion Several theories of motivation exist, though some may have lost significance over time, their role in shaping motivation theory must be acknowledged. The vast majority of motivation theories are based on the differing approaches to the sources of motivation. Motivation theories can be needs-based; cognitive or drive and reinforcement based. The goal-setting theory has emerged as the most prominent motivation theory both in practice and by the sheer number of papers written on it. Research indicates that the best performance outcome is achieved when goals are specific and challenging. When goals are used to evaluate performance and are linked to feedback on results, an atmosphere of commitment and acceptance is achieved. Bibliography: Torrington, D., et al, 2002. Human resource management. Harlow: Financial Times/Prentice Hall. Pinnington, A. and Edwards, T., 2000. Introduction to human resource management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marchington, M. and Wilkinson, A., 2005. Human resource management at work: people management and development. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Needham, D. and Dransfield, R., 2004. Business for Foundation and Higher Degrees. London: Heinemann. Paul, J., 1996. Total quality management: an introductory text. London: Prentice Hall. Latham, G., 2007. Work motivation: history, theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.     Read More