Applications of Plant Biotechnology for Food and Non-Food Uses - Research Paper Example

Applications of Plant Biotechnology for Food and Non-food Uses Abstract Plant biotechnology has advanced over the years especially with the increased availability of genetic information of a wide variety of organisms. Biotechnologists can access entire genomes of a number of organisms and a lot more information on genetic engineering. Applications of plant biotechnology are diverse. However, it has been slowly adopted and challenged by ethical issues. Plant biotechnology is widely applied in the food industry. It addresses the demand for increased yield, disease and pest control, improved product quality and improved food processing qualifies. Although the adoption in other industries has been slower, it has progressed in the recent years. It is presently used in the medical industry and the fuel industry. This paper focuses on the application of plant biotechnology for food and non-food uses. Keywords: plant biotechnology, genome, genetic engineering, genetically modified organism, transgenic Applications of Plant Biotechnology for Food and Non-food Uses Introduction Plant biotechnology refers to the scientific techniques applied to manipulate the genetic makeup of the plant to produce an organism with a desirable trait. Plant biotechnologist may manipulate the genome of a plant by introducing genes that code for a protein that confers a desirable trait in the genetically modified variety (Srisuvor et al., 2013). For example, genes from microorganisms that code for proteins with antiviral and antifungal activity are introduced into the plant genome (Rao et al., 2015). This technology is applied in many industries but especially in the food industry. The potential applications are diverse and can only be realised by research (Morandini et al., 2011). Research should also address the ethical issues and safety concerns that challenge the adaptation of plant biotechnology. Application of Plant Biotechnology for Food Uses Plant biotechnology plays a critical role in the genetic improvement of food crops. It offers effective techniques to address food security concerns (BASF 2011). It allows for increased product quality, nutritional content, economic benefits as well as environmental benefits. Small-scale farmers and food production companies aim at maximally utilizing the land available to them for food production (Stewart, 2012). Plant biotechnology addresses this need by increasing the productivity of crops and improving the growth rate of the plants as well as increasing the amount of desired product that a particular plant produces. By targeting growth regulators such as growth hormones, plant biotechnology can enhance organ and tissue growth rate in plants. Many biotechnology programs aim to improve the quality of food products. These programs mainly focus on altering the nutritional content of staple food so as to improve the nutritional quality (“Agricultural Biotechnology,” 2014). For example, rice is predominantly eaten in some developing countries where other food sources are scarce and unavailable to the poor. Though rice is a good source of carbohydrate, proteins, lipids, fibre, some minerals and vitamins, it is deficient in essential minerals and vitamins. Rice is a poor source of zinc, iron and vitamin A and E. Deficiency disorders are, therefore, a common site in such countries. Biofortification offers a solution that is effective for such large populations. By incorporating genes that increase the levels of these nutrients in the rice plant, biotechnology addresses the problem faced by such countries. Rice with provitamin A and ferritin has been developed by biotechnology techniques and is currently used in countries such as India. By altering the lysine metabolic pathways through the use of RNAi, biotechnologists have also been able to increase the content of lysine, threonine and aspartate in rice and hence the dietary proteins obtained from rice (Srisuvor et al., 2013). Similar technology has been used in the maize plant where protein content has been increased by addition sulphur containing amino acids. Fat profiles are a key focus of nutritionists and health officials as they have been associated with various diseases such as cardiovascular disease (Stewart, 2012). Biotechnology modifies fat content in plants. Modified soybean plant with increased levels of oleic acid is planted in countries including South Africa, Canada, China and USA. Biotechnology is also applied to in improving the general quality of the plants and their products. Plant contamination and toxins such as aflatoxins affect productivity. Biotechnology incorporates antifungal genes and other genes into the plant genome to inhibit the biosynthesis of these contaminants and toxins (Barrell et al., 2013). This is especially vital in improving the plant self-defence mechanism. Such toxins are lethal and often kill the invader instantly. In addition, once these toxins have biosynthesized and accumulated in high amount or have been sequestered, they can find their use in other non-food applications. Increasing plant resistance to pests and diseases is another key focus of plant biotechnology. Crops over the years have been lost to a number of diseases and pests. Biotechnology has developed environmentally friendly methods such as the introduction of antiviral and antifungal genes to plant genome to fight diseases and pests (Gašo-Sokač et al., 2010). By so doing, biotechnology has reduced the need for application of insecticides that are harmful to the environment. Insect resistant soybean is currently being grown in countries in Asia, South America and the USA. The plant produces the protein Cry1Ac and hence is resistant to the lepidopteran pest. This increases the total plant yield and reduces the environmental strain caused by insecticide application. Genetically modified maize resistant to corn borers has been used for many years. The maize produces an insecticidal protein, Bt protein, produced by the soil microorganism Bacillus thuringiensis. Rice, cotton and potato have also been modified with insecticidal protein conferring resistance to pest attack (Barrell et al., 2013). The delta-endotoxin gene is incorporated into the plants genome, and it is effective against insect pests. In addition, its effectiveness against the larvae of butterflies and moths has been an area that investigators have explored (Halford, 2006). This endotoxin kills leaf-eating pests. Other insecticidal can also be incorporated to increase the spectrum these proteins are effective and environmentally friendly (Crop Life 2015). Genes for protease inhibitors are also introduced into the plant to enhance their defence mechanisms. Disease-causing viruses challenge food production. This is controlled by antisense RNA, cross protection and insertion of Satellite viruses to provide protection. Varieties of potatoes resistant to potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus have been developed through biotechnology. Papaya resistant to the papaya ringspot virus was developed by the insertion of the gene that codes the coat protein of the virus (Takahashi et al., 2014). This protein, therefore, protects this variety. Zucchini yellow mosaic, as well as the watermelon mosaic virus resistant yellow crookneck squash has also been developed in the same manner. Plant resistance to viruses leads to decreased use of insecticides since it eliminates the need to act on insect vectors transmitting the viruses. Plant biotechnology also develops herbicide tolerant plants and hence lessen the need for the use of agrochemicals. These plants are hence more environmentally friendly. Herbicide tolerant soybean is modified with a gene that provides resistance to glyphosate (Lau et al., 2014). This genetically modified soybean is used around the world and grown mainly in Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, USA, among other countries. This herbicide-tolerant soybean allows for better weed control, increases yields and decreases crop injury and still has the same nutritional composition as the plant varieties (Wojtasik et al., 2014). Other herbicide-tolerant plants developed include maize, rice, cotton, canola, alfalfa and rapeseed. These plants reduce the need for herbicide application. They are, therefore, economical in addition to the environmental advantages. The world’s environmental condition has significantly changed when compared to a century ago. The rainfall patterns, soil toxicity and climate change all affect plant growth. With the reduction of the ozone layer, there is also increased ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth surface (Rao et al., 2015). Plant biotechnology allows for the modification of the plant to survive these conditions. Global warming has caused a decrease in the availability of water for growth of the rice plant. It has also caused salinity that affects crop growth. Plant biotechnology has developed rice varieties with abiotic stress resistance and hence able to survive these conditions. A move to enhance efficient water use and drought resistant necessitated incorporation of the HRD gene into the plant (Takahashi et al., 2014). This gene increased the leaf biomass, as well as the sheath cells. Tolerance to salinity was increased by expression of ABF3 and CBF3/DREB1A. Abiotic stress resistance is also enhanced by the trehalose accumulation bacterial genes. The antifreeze genes have been used to modify plants to survive in low-temperature environments. Antifreeze proteins allow survival at below-zero temperature by inhibiting ice growth, shape modification of ice crystals and repressing recrystallization. The cold sensitive tobacco plant was transgenically modified to overexpress a beetle antifreeze protein conferring cold tolerance in the plant (Rao et al., 2015). Soybean has also been modified with antifreeze gene from an arctic fish to confer cold tolerance in the plant. Application of Plant Biotechnology in Non-food Use Plant biotechnology can be used to produce vaccines and antibodies in plants. Plants have been proposed as an alternative to conventional ways of vaccine production such as production by animal cell cultures since it has many potential advantages (Johnson, 2013). The main advantage being that the proteins will be post-translational modified and hence the product will be similar to that produces by the intended target. The plant production systems will also be more economical when compared to the methods currently used (Hollis Rice et al., 2013). Use of plants also creates a possibility of producing edible plants with the vaccine accumulated in a variety of plant organs. Production of vaccines from animal sources is challenged by the presence of animal pathogens. This can be solved by the use of plant production. The leading technologies used for the production of vaccine in plants include nuclear genetic modification, plastid genetic modification, and transient expression via Agrobacterium and transient genetic modification via viral vectors (ScienceDaily 2015). Nuclear genetic modification is the most commonly used technology for production of vaccines. This technology involves the integration of the genes coding the desired vaccine into the nuclear genome of the production plant. In a dicotyledonous plant such as the pea plant, the transformation method used is by Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer (Bugnicourt et al., 2014). Particle bombardment of genes is used in monocotyledonous plants such as rice, maize, and wheat. Transplastomic plants are developed by integration of the desired vaccine gene into the plastid genome through homologous recombination. Transient expression via Agrobacterium involves delivery of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens modified with the desired gene into the leaf tissue of the production plant (Bionity.com, 2014). The vaccine gene is then transferred into the plant. Transient genetic modification via viral vectors has the advantage of high yields since the viral genome multiplies once the cell is infected (Halford, 2006). However, this procedure has the downside of not being heritable. Genetically modified plants can also be used to produce a wide variety of other non-food products such as medicinal products, bioplastics, industrial raw material, fuel, transport oils, cooking oils and food additives (Johnson, 2013). Plant are genetically modified to produce essential dietary lipids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid. They may also be modified to produce other fatty acids for non-food purposes. For example, cosmetic products and detergents contain lauric acid, which can be produced by overexpression in genetically modified plants (Popp, 2012). Health products use a linolenic acid that can be produced by plant biotechnology. Lubricating oils and plastics use a poisonous erucic acid that is produced by the same technology (Ou et al., 2011). Genetically modified rapeseed plant containing lauroyl-ACP thioesterase from the California Bay plant has been developed. This plant is grown and produces 40 percent lauric acid used in the detergent, cosmetic as well as the food industries. Potatoes tubers have been genetically modified with polymer production genes. This technique is environmentally friendly as it bypasses the need to use non-renewable and energy intensive methods to produce polymers (Morandini et al., 2011). This method also shows great economic advantages and has, as a result, attracted a lot of commercial research. Genetic modification of plants to produce polymer is already being used in the industrial production of a special plastic, a polymer of polyhydroxybutyrate. Plant biotechnology is also applicable to improving the food processing quality of various food products including rice, maize, barley and wheat. Barley is mainly consumed as beer and whiskey after malting and distillation. The malting process involves germination and kilning and is affected by a wide range of parameters. Factors of grain development can be genetically modified to improve the grain quality for the malting process (Nature, 2013). The plant can be genetically altered modifying the protein content, thickness of the starchy endosperm, and texture of the grain and beta-amylase and alpha-glucosidase hydrolytic enzymes concentration (Singh et al., 2010). Genetic modification produces plant varieties with improved food processing qualities. The kilning process creates the need to improve the thermostability of enzymatic activity. Variants with thermostable beta-amylase have been developed by protein engineering with T50 increased from 57.4 oC to 69 oC. Thermostable beta-amylase from Clostridium thermosulfurogens and other thermophilic microorganisms can also be used to genetically modify barley to withstand kilning temperatures. Beta-glucanase is able to withstand kilning temperature derived from Bacillus spp. has been genetically engineered into barley. Wheat grain is genetically modified to improve grain texture and dough strength of the wheat flour. Food allergies and intolerances affect a large percentage of the population and are highly prevalent in children especially in modern times (Rybicki, 2010). Genetic engineering can be used to downregulate prolamins in barley, rye, and wheat associated with baker’s allergy, as well as a dietary allergy to rice. Gluten allergy is highly prevalent. Coeliac disease is triggered by sequences presents in gluten proteins. It is a T cell-mediated autoimmune response that can be controlled by plant biotechnology. Conclusion The applications of plant biotechnology are diverse. The potential applications are also as diverse and can only be realised by research. World problems such nutritional deficiency and food security can be effectively addressed through application of plant biotechnology. In order to achieve this, biotechnologists should strive to address the safety concerns and ethical issues that challenge the adoption of plant biotechnology. Bibliography Agricultural Biotechnology: The Promise and Prospects of Genetically Modified Crops†, 2014. . J. Econ. Perspect. 28, 99–120. Retrieved April 5, 2015 from doi:10.1257/jep.28.1.99 Barrell, P.J., Meiyalaghan, S., Jacobs, J.M.E., Conner, A.J., 2013, ‘Applications of biotechnology and genomics in potato improvement’, Plant Biotechnol. J. 11, 907–920. doi:10.1111/pbi.12099 BASF. 2011. Plant Biotechnology. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.basf.com/en/company/research/our-focus/plant-biotechnology.html. [Accessed 01 April 15]. Bionity.com. 2014. Sustainable production of pharmaceutical compounds. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.bionity.com/en/news/147790/sustainable-production-of-pharmaceutical-compounds.html. [Accessed 07 April 15]. Bugnicourt, E., Cinelli, P., Lazzeri, A., Alvarez, V., 2014, ‘Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA): Review of synthesis, characteristics, processing and potential applications in packaging’, Express Polym. Lett. 8, 791–808. Retrieved April 5, 2015 from doi:10.3144/expresspolymlett.2014.82 Crop Life, ‘Plant biotechnology’, accessed on 28 Apr. 15 From http://www.croplife.ca/plant-biotechnology Dogaris, I., Mamma, D., Kekos, D., 2013, ‘Biotechnological production of ethanol from renewable resources by Neurospora crassa: an alternative to conventional yeast fermentations?, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 97, 1457–1473. Retrieved April 1, 2015 from doi:10.1007/s00253-012-4655-2 Gašo-Sokač, D., Kovač, S., Josić, D., 2010, ‘Application of Proteomics in Food Technology and Food Biotechnology: Process Development, Quality Control and Product Safety’, Food Technol. Biotechnol. 48, 284–295. Halford, N. G. 2006, Plant biotechnology current and future applications of genetically modified crops, Chichester, England, J. Wiley. Halford, N. G., 2006, Plant biotechnology current and future applications of genetically modified crops, Chichester, England, J. Wiley. Hollis Rice, J., Mundell, R.E., Millwood, R.J., Chambers, O.D., Neal Stewart Jr, C., Maelor Davies, H., 2013, ‘Assessing the bioconfinement potential of a Nicotiana hybrid platform for use in plant molecular farming applications’, BMC Biotechnol. 13, 1–11. Retrieved April 1, 2015 from doi:10.1186/1472-6750-13-63 Johnson, E., 2013, ‘Biotechnology of non- Saccharomyces yeasts-the ascomycetes’, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 97, 503–517. Retrieved April 2, 2015 from doi:10.1007/s00253-012-4497-y Lau, W., Fischbach, M.A., Osbourn, A., Sattely, E.S., 2014, ‘Key Applications of Plant Metabolic Engineering’, PLoS Biol. 12, 1–5. Retrieved April 2, 2015 from doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001879 Morandini, F., Avesani, L., Bortesi, L., Van Droogenbroeck, B., De Wilde, K., Arcalis, E., Bazzoni, F., Santi, L., Brozzetti, A., Falorni, A., Stoger, E., Depicker, A., Pezzotti, M., 2011, ‘Non-food/feed seeds as biofactories for the high-yield production of recombinant pharmaceuticals’, Plant Biotechnol. J. 9, 911–921. Retrieved April 2, 2015 from doi:10.1111/j.1467-7652.2011.00605.x Nature. 2013. Plant biotechnology: Tarnished promise. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.nature.com/news/plant-biotechnology-tarnished-promise-1.12894. [Accessed 14 April 15]. Ou, M., Ingram, L., Shanmugam, K., 2011, ‘l(+)-Lactic acid production from non-food carbohydrates by thermotolerant Bacillus coagulans’, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 38, 599–605. Retrieved April 4, 2015 from doi:10.1007/s10295-010-0796-4 Popp, J. 2012, The role of biotechnology in a sustainable food supply, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Rao, A.S., Srivastava, S., Ganeshamurty, A.N., 2015, ‘Phosphorus supply may dictate food security prospects in India’, Curr. Sci. 00113891 108, 1253–1261. Rybicki, E.P., 2010, ‘Plant-made vaccines for humans and animals’, Plant Biotechnol. J. 8, 620–637. Retrieved April 4, 2015 from doi:10.1111/j.1467-7652.2010.00507.x ScienceDaily. 2015. Genetically modified crops to fight spina bifida. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/04/150428125042.htm. [Accessed 23 April 15]. Singh, A.V., Nath, L.K., Singh, A., 2010, ‘Pharmaceutical, Food and Non-Food Applications of Modified Starches: A Critical Review’, Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 9, 1214–1221. Srisuvor, N., Prakitchaiwattana, C., Chinprahast, N., Subhimaros, S., 2013, ‘Use of banana purée from three indigenous Thai cultivars as food matrices for probiotics and application in bio-set-type yoghurt production’, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 48, 1640–1648. Retrieved April 4, 2015 from doi:10.1111/ijfs.12134 Stewart, C. N. 2012, Plant biotechnology and genetics principles, techniques and applications, New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons. Takahashi, H., Ohshima, C., Nakagawa, M., Thanatsang, K., Phraephaisarn, C., Chaturongkasumrit, Y., Keeratipibul, S., Kuda, T., Kimura, B., 2014, ‘Development of New Multilocus Variable Number of Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA) for Listeria innocua and Its Application in a Food Processing Plant’, PLoS ONE 9, 1–7. Retrieved April 4, 2015 from doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105803 Wojtasik, W., Kulma, A., Boba, A., Szopa, J., 2014, ‘Oligonucleotide treatment causes flax β-glucanase up-regulation via changes in gene-body methylation’, BMC Plant Biol. 14, 2–31. Retrieved April 4, 2015 from doi:10.1186/s12870-014-0261-z Read More