Genetically Modified Organisms - Research Paper Example

? Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Pennie Archie Jevy Callipare Claudia Colon Gregory Cassell LAS432: Group E DeVry Marnie Binder Date: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Introduction This research focuses on a Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), which involve a form of technological advancement in the field of biotechnology. Moreover, this paper explores numerous aspects of genetically modified organisms in order to achieve the research objectives. In this case, this research paper will cover aspects such as historical background, political, legal and economical impact of the GMO. It will also discuss the social, psychological, environmental, moral and ethical implications of GMO to the society. Nevertheless, the main objective of this research paper, which is set by the thesis statement, is to conduct an exhaustive analysis of controversial foundation and application of genetically modified organisms, thereby evaluating its implications, influences, and potential risks and benefits to society’s culture, moral values, economic, and governance, the wildlife, and environment. I. What is GMO? According to Millis (2006), genetically modified organism refers to the host species involved in DNA technology breeding; in fact, GMO is a species with which breeding cannot occur, but DNA of another species can be introduced into it to acquire a genetically modified organism. Therefore, it receives a small piece of DNA from the species donor, thereby forming a property, which is unattainable through conventional breeding. A brief description of the biotechnology Gianessi, Silvers, Sankula & Carpenter (2002), explains that biotechnology refers to application of processes, systems and organisms in a way that assist in obtaining materials or organisms with desired attributes. In fact, biotechnology has been used in production of crops and livestock with potentials of increasing productivity (Magdoff & Tokar, 2009). Moreover, some crops are produced in a way that they do not need use of pesticides and herbicides for controlling pests and weed respectively. 1. Science that drove GMO Biotechnology is an infinite field with diverse technologies, which contributes to the medical sciences by facilitating development of preeminent resolution for human health problems. In this case, biotechnology has led to establishment of technique through which organisms are modified genetically; in fact, this is as one of its applications. Moreover, biotechnology has been applied in the field of food development, whereby new properties are introduced into the genes of animals and plants to increase their productivity and resistance to pests or diseases. 2. Applications of GMO a. Traditional breeding Conventionally, plant cross breeding involved selection of species with desired properties among the offspring. In fact, crossing was aimed at obtaining a fertile offspring. With introduction of biotechnology, a desire to cross species that could not be crossed led to recombinant DNA technology, which made it possible to introduce a piece of DNA from one species to other species referred to as the hosts. Therefore, through this procedure the host specie became the GMO (Millis, 2006). Moreover, conventional breeding involved plants and animal breeding, whereby species with desired quality were bred with others in order to obtain useful combinations. In this case, the offspring after the cross breeding would acquire desirable traits such as resistance to pests and diseases or increased productivity. b. Molecular biology Molecular biology refers to the study of organisms at molecular level of their structure; in fact, it is applied in exploration of cells in order to identify their attributes and chemical processes. Therefore, through molecular biology, information concerning biological processes of the cell can be obtained. Furthermore, molecular biology in plants involves genetic, genomic, cell biological and biochemical approaches that facilitate understanding organisms’ growth. In this case, molecular biology is applied in making genetically modified organism, through understanding of the cells involved. According to Krause (2009), the concept of molecular biology has been renovated by Genomes, whereby the system of interacting macromolecules or genomes replaced set of distinct particles, which are underlying objects of DNA research. 1. Types of pest control through biotechnology Currently, biotechnology is being applied in maize production, whereby there are transgenic maize hybrids, which are intrinsically offered with a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) (Rozen & Ester, 2010). In this case, biotechnology is applied production of maize, which controls lepidopteran pests. In fact, the maize seeds are produced in a way that they have resistance against pests such as rootworms (Rozen & Ester, 2010). The other way of using biotechnology for pest control is by producing insect resistant and herbicide tolerance crops. According to Gianessi, Silvers, Sankula and Carpenter (2002), biotechnology is applied in order to acquire ways for controlling nematodes and other deceases through bacterial, fungal and viral resistance in crops. Therefore, biotechnology has contributed to biotech-pest control alternatives, which have become new cultivars for commercial purposes. A. Explanation of the associated science 1. Benefits/Advantages of GMO GMO facilitates creation of herbicide resistant crops, which require less tillage; in fact, this leads to enhancement of organic matter in the soil. Moreover, it decreases wind and water erosion, thereby improving structure of the soil (Millis, 2006). In this case, due to reduced application of herbicides, water contamination caused by runoff to watercourses such as rivers and streams is decreased significantly. Millis (2006) explains that GMO facilitates creation of plants, which produce toxins against caterpillar larvae leading to reduction of using chemical sprays. Therefore, GMO crops reduce soil pollution and waterways, which occurs due to use of chemicals; in fact, it does not affect useful insects. Furthermore, GMO crops facilitate production of vitamins, which are not in various types of staple crops. In this case, technology involved in creation of GMO crops facilitates introduction of genes for vitamin A into crops such as rice (Millis, 2006). In addition, GMO has facilitated research aimed at progressing tolerance to cases of drought; thus, these researches can assist in dealing with rapidly increasing population. 2. Harmful effect/Disadvantages of GMO According to Millis (2006), some pollen from the GMO does not produce GMO crops; thus, this leads to introduction of the novel gene into a traditional crop. For instance, pollen that is produced by a GMO, which has resistance to herbicide, can be crossed with a compatible weed leading to introduction of a resistant weed. On the other hand, herbicide resistant crops are difficult to control; in fact, they lead to development of GMO plant that are resistant to insecticides such as cotton (Millis, 2006). Moreover, resistant crops are harmful to the soil, and they have a negative impact on nutrient cycling. In addition, there are other GMO, which have poor nutritional profile, while others are digested poorly or toxins become allergen. GMO have led to significant concerns in the community due to religious and molar implications involved. In fact, GMO create a negative perception of biotechnology due to preference for various lifestyles or concerns regarding market power, which may be associated with agreement of product licensing (Millis, 2006). Nonetheless, there are other risks associated with environment and the human health, which are not considered in creation of GMO under prevailing regulatory processes. II. Implications for the environment According to Rozen and Ester (2010), combination of seed treatment, transgenic maize and bait-insecticide has substantial environmental benefits associated with use of insignificant amount of active ingredients. Moreover, there are benefits derived from GMO compared to various methods of seed treatment. For instance, genetically modified organisms are not complicated and they have a significant level of safety involved with respect to environment. On the other hand, there are adverse effects caused by GMO such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) on behaviors and survival of other organisms such as butterflies. In fact, this problem occurs due to a long-term exposure of these organisms to the pollen grain from GMO (Rozen & Ester, 2010). Therefore, these adverse effects cause suffering to other organisms in the environment. Other insects that are beneficial to the plants are affected by genetically engineered Bt crops. In fact, some of these insects contribute significantly to control of pests naturally such as green lacewings (Prasifka, Hellmich, Prasifka & Lewis, 2007). Furthermore, the risk involved has been studied at a multifaceted level in relation to their food web. In this case, there are environmental risks associated with direct acute toxicity caused by GMO. In addition, the GMO has a threat to the soil ecosystems, because there is a secretion from numerous Bt crops into the soil; thus, the soil residues are left with active toxins after cultivation. Moreover, this has long-term increasing effects due to continuous growing Bt crops (Millis, 2006). Prasifka, Hellmich, Prasifka and Lewis (2007) explain that Bt crops have agricultural waste, which enters into the watercourses and leads to adverse effects to the organisms in water bodies. Therefore, this is a crucial demonstration of interaction between natural environment and limitations identified through a risk assessment. Moreover, GMO has led to creation of crops such as Bt maize, which are more susceptible to plant lice compared to conventional maize; in fact, this susceptibility is as a result of alterations in chemistry (Millis, 2006). In this case, there are substantial implications of GMO to the ecology that can be described through an application of crops such as Bt maize. In addition, GMO leads increased weed tolerance to herbicides, and this evolution of weed becomes an environmental problem. A. Physiological effects on humans There are ethical dilemmas involving consumption of GMO, which are attributed to a concern of their negative effects. On the other hand, genetically modified foods are produced as a supplementation of wild foods (Netherwood, Martin-Orue & O'Donnell, 2004). However, this production has contributed to creation of diet that is associated with a gene related to chronic illnesses. Therefore, production of GMO has led to a prevalence and mortality caused by diseases such as hypertension, coronary alter disease, diabetes and cancer (Jonas, Elmadfa & Engel, 2001). In fact, the form of disease depends on genetic receptiveness and environmental antecedent. On the other hand, GMO cause rapid changes in the diet and lifestyle, which may lead to a significant impact on heritability related to variant phenotypes (Magdoff & Tokar, 2009). Furthermore, these phenotypes are dependent on expression of food supplementation. 1. Health issues Recently, there have been cases of children developing severe allergies in America and Europe due to peanuts and other foods that were produced through genetic modification (Young, 2012). Moreover, according to Nordlee, Taylor and Townsend (1996), there were cases of allergic reaction, which led to rejection of a proposal to incorporate a gene from Brazil nuts into soybeans. Millis (2006) explains that there are toxins produced by crops, though at insignificant level. However, the level of toxicity increases due to breeding of two different species that occurs in GMO. On the other hand, the nutritional value of these GMO crops is not high since they are not naturally produced. In this case, they are not contributive to human health (Millis, 2006). In fact, they facilitate development of resistance by the bacteria in the human body, which acts against any antibiotics during medication for a bacteria related illness. 2. Safety issues Consumption of genetically modified plants has a significant danger involved, since their production process involves genetic engineering, which has a degree of unpredictability in changes created. In fact, degree unpredictability exists regardless of, which gene is introduced to the host. Moreover, this procedure leads to mutation after the gene is transferred to form genetically modified foods, which are consumed by human beings. According to Netherwood, Martin-Orue and O'Donnell (2004), there were assertions by from the biotech industry indicating that genes from GM foods were not transferable. However, studies concerning feeding of GM led to the discovery that transfer of these genes had been taking place. Consequently, this discovery raised concern about people’s safety in consumption of genetically modified foods. For instance, a gene from soybeans that are genetically modified in order to make them herbicide tolerant is transferable into a DNA of human gut bacteria (Netherwood, Martin-Orue & O'Donnell, 2004). On the other hand, stopping consumption of these soybeans can lead to production of other forms of proteins in the human intestines. Moreover, this adverse health effect has called for a screening of genetically modified foods since these effects depend on the form of modification (Jonas, Elmadfa & Engel, 2001). Nonetheless, the genetically modified foods have been considered unsafe for human consumption but due to lose regulation by the government, there are numerous types of GMOs in the market. In fact, there are no tests have been conducted to verify that these foods are good for human consumption (Millis, 2006). Therefore, it is becoming difficult for consumers to differentiate between organic and inorganic foods. B. Effects on natural resources 1. Air pollution GMO crops produce pollens that are carried through the air, and they contribute to pollution, though indirectly. In fact, this can be argued that the pollen grains are foreign substances, which contribute to adverse effects due to gene flow (Rozen & Ester, 2010). On the other hand, some of these pollen grains have compounds that trigger allergic reaction to human beings. Nevertheless, there are no significant accounts indicating that GMO is directly involve in the problem of air pollutions. 2. Water pollution According to Young (2012), production of GMO applies chemicals such as glyphosate, which contributes to water contamination if the waste of disposed into a water body. Moreover, famers using GMO to increase their productivity are fond of disposing their waste into rivers and lakes. In fact, in some situations the toxins enters into rivers through the runoffs during rainy seasons. Therefore, GMO products used by the famers make a substantial contribution to water pollution (Magdoff & Tokar, 2009). On the other hand, there are toxins secreted by genetically modified plants and they end up being carried in to water bodies by water runoffs. In addition, these wastes and toxins have adverse effects to the marine organism due to water pollution. 3. Effects on surrounding crops Plants that are adjacent to genetically modified crops are negatively affected by the toxins secreted by these plants into the soil (Millis, 2006). In this case, the organic crops end up absorbing these toxins from the soil, and these results to adverse effects. For instance, there are chances for a corn to be destroyed through contamination caused by other genetically modified crops. Moreover, there are substances such as Bt endotoxin, which remain in the soil for a period that exceeds ten months, and they have a negative effects on other plants during this period (Rozen & Ester, 2010). Furthermore, genetically modified crops undergo rapid growth and this may lead to preventing sunlight from reaching other plant, which are growing relatively slow; in fact, they end up growing weak due to lack of photosynthesis. C. Impact on wildlife Wildlife is prone to the adverse effects of the GMO, since these plants are also consumed by animals. On the other hand, these animals drink water from rivers that are contaminated by substances excreted by GMO crops. For instance, there are cases that have been identified where an animal was affected by GMO; in fact, this was a case where a white tail deer in America was affected because of consuming genetically modified corns and soybeans (Young, 2012). There are other cases where animals consumed genetically modified potatoes and as a result, they suffer from related health complications; thus, the genetically modified plants have adverse effects on the wild animals. References Anderson, T. (2011). Counterpoint: GMO foods are unsafe. Points of view: Genetically modified foods, 6. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from EBSCO, DeVry University online database (Accession No: 12441283). Gianessi, L., Silvers, C. Sankula, S. & Carpenter, J. (2002). Plant Biotechnology: Current and Potential Impact for Improving Pest Management in U.S. Agriculture: An Analysis of 40 Case Studies. National Center for Food & Agricultural Policy. Retrieved from: http://cib.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/estudos_cientificos_ambiental_24.pdf Jonas, D. A., Elmadfa, I. & Engel K.H. (2001). Safety considerations of DNA in food. Ann Nutr Metab; 45: 235-54 Krause, K. W. (2009, July/August). Unlimited potential or uncertain peril? Genomes, "Genes for," and GMOs. Humanist, 69(4), 41-43. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from EBSCO, Points of View Reference Center database (Accession No: 43250045). Magdoff, F. & Tokar, B. (2009). Agriculture and food in crisis. Annals Of Earth, 27(2), 15-19. Retrieved March 14, 2013, from EBSCO, Points of View Reference Center database (Accession No: 45454986). Millis, N. (2006). Genetically modified organisms. Retrieved March 14, 2013, from http://155.187.3.82/soe/2006/publications/emerging/gmo/pubs/gmo.pdf Nordlee J.A., Taylor S.L., & Townsend J.A., (1996). Identification of a Brazil-nut allergen in transgenic soybeans. N Engl J Med; 334(11): 688-92 Netherwood, T., Martin-Orue, S.M., & O'Donnell, A.G. (2004). Assessing the survival of transgenic plant DNA in the human gastrointestinal tract. Nat Biotechnol 22: 204-9. Prasifka, P.L., Hellmich, R.L., Prasifka, J.R. & Lewis, L.C. (2007). Effects of Cry1Ab-expressing corn anthers on the movement of monarch butterfly larvae. Environ Entomolology 36:228-33 Rozen, K. K. & Ester, A. A. (2010). Chemical control of diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. Journal Of Applied Entomology Zeitschrift F©Or Angewandte Entomologie, 134(5), 376-384. Retrieved March 13, 2013, from EBSCO, Academic Search Complete Database (Accession No: IND44369360). Young, A. (2012). GMOs: Friend or foe? Natural Health, 42(4), 46-50. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from EBSCO, Points of View Reference Center database (Accession No: 75454734). Read More