The Definition of Art - Essay Example

The Definition of Art Depending on time period and place, the definition of art has meant different things to different people. For example, most people today recognize the term ‘Renaissance’ as meaning a specific time period in Western European culture which happened roughly between the years 1400 and 1600, having its start earlier in the major city-states of Italy and characterized by a tremendous explosion in art. “The term ‘Renaissance’ might now be defined as a model of cultural history in which the culture of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe is represented as a repudiation of medieval values in favor of the revival of the culture of ancient Greece and Rome” (Campbell, 2004: v-vi). This suggests that the definition of art that emerged during the Renaissance differed significantly from the accepted definitions applied to art during the Middle Ages. However, the word ‘Renaissance’ itself means, literally, “rebirth” and it was applied to the ideas of artistic renewal that took place in this time period as the people of Italy and other nations began rediscovering the skill of the ancient world that represented for them a golden age of shared culture, reason and creativity. Examining the differences between the art produced in the Middle Ages and that produced in the Renaissance, it cannot be denied that the definition of ‘art’ has shifted and changed over time and across cultures. Art in the Middle Ages can be seen to be dominated by themes of Christianity as the Paganism of the shattered Roman Empire gave way to the Christian belief structures of the new emperors and rulers. From roughly the 500s to the 1500s, art was dominated by a rigid interpretation offered by religious leaders rather than through any of the science or knowledge that had been gained in earlier centuries. Like the Renaissane itself, the Middle Ages can often be broken down into three distinct periods: the early middle ages, the central middle ages and the late middle ages. “During the early Middle Ages, most paintings were found in the form of illustrated manuscripts. This remained the chief form of painting for years” (Rymer, 2004). A chief reason for this was due to the fact that much of the art produced during this period was produced in the only place where individuals had the leisure and materials with which to produce it and where the wealth consented to support it. Manuscripts were important in preserving the knowledge of the church before the printing press was invented and the illustration of these manuscripts was encouraged by those individuals with the power and strength to encourage it but without the knowledge to read it. “During the time of Charlemagne, a large emphasis was placed on learning. Though Charlemagne could not read, he supported the development of illustrated texts” (Rymer, 2004). Color usage was relatively muted in the earliest examples of illustrated manuscripts; however it became more brilliant and decorative as time moved forward. Eventually, this incorporated the use of gold and silver, very expensive pigments that added the flash of reflected light that ‘illuminated’ the text, as a means of illustration. An example of this form of art can be found in illustrated manuscripts such as the Aberdeen Bestiary. By the central middle ages, the illustrations from these manuscripts had made the jump from the pages of the book, in which they were still painted, to the walls of churches in the form of murals. Not many of these early murals can still be found today, but they are believed to have much in common with wooden panels that were painted to decorate the church altars. “By this time the gilded and painted panels of elaborate altarpieces had begun to join – and would eventually overshadow – fresco and mosaic as the principal forms of decoration in Italian churches” (National Gallery of Art, 2007). Although the form had changed, the ideas remained relatively unchanged for much of the millennium. In keeping with its early roots, many of the images that were produced for murals, mosaics and stained glass were designed to help educate the illiterate regarding the more important stories of the Bible through pictures, a sort of medieval comic book with serious intent. During the Medieval period, artists took their principle inspiration from the Byzantine icons. “For Byzantine Christians – and Orthodox Christians today – the icon was a true copy of its holy model. Theologians used the analogy of a wax impression and the seal used to create it to describe the relation between an icon and its subject. Because they depict a holy and infinite presence, not the temporal physical world, icons avoid direct reference to earthly reality, to specific time and place” (National Gallery of Art, 2007). To illustrate their otherworldly status, many of these illustrations, whether they were placed in books, on walls or on alter pieces, these images typically featured dimensionless backgrounds that were filled with the glittering gold flake or silver foil that characterized the illuminated texts. Figures are depicted in differing sizes to denote hierarchies. For example, Jesus might be featured as a very large figure in the image while lesser saints and angels would appear in a smaller size. In addition, the figures all seem to be in a relatively static position without any sense of dimension involved. This was because it was believed these types of images served as a window of sorts between the material world of the parishioner and the divine world of God. As the structural ruins of the ancient world were being rediscovered and the principles of science were again coming to light heading into the 1500s, the Renaissance was born. The focus provided during the Renaissance did have a quite different approach from the approach of their predecessors, as the art created during the Renaissance reflected ancient myths and legends as well as contemporary thought and Christian ideals. As the church simultaneously underwent a period of Reformation, rejecting the focus on material splendors, such as the gold-plated iconography, and turning instead to its simpler, purer early forms, many artists during the Renaissance found themselves pulled between Christianity and paganism, heaven and earth, and found a way to express this conflict in the magnificent works of art they produced. The artists of the Italian Renaissance were given greater abilities to communicate with their audiences not only in subject matter and the application of scientific principles, but also in that they were working with a more educated audience capable of understanding the finer nuances of these works. Artists of 15th century Florence quickly linked the mathematical focus of the ancient Greeks and Romans to the geometric and arithmetic, or proportional, focus of their own world as a common factor in both creating great works of art as well as communicating to their audience on an immediate basis. “In an age of non-standard shipping units, one had to be able to calculate contents and quantities of shipments fairly rapidly” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993, p. 15). Painters and other artists used this foundational knowledge in geometry to present objects and elements in their work that would be familiar to the average viewer and immediately underscore the message being portrayed. “In the same way that a painter could reduce the human form or settings to a play of geometrical figures, so could the merchant simplify all things to geometrical configurations” (Lemaitre & Lessing, 1993, p. 15). In combining mathematics with artistic expression, artists were able to incorporate a new degree of weight and volume to their figures, which made them take a more direct examination of the world around them. This, in turn, led to the systematic development of the naturalism and realism that emerged during this period, mostly in the area of paintings. This new approach to pictorial representation led to an explosion in artists under the support and direction of wealthy merchants and bankers as patrons, again expanding the field beyond the confines of the Christian church. Important artists in the Italian Renaissance remain well-known names today –Giotto, Masaccio, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. “In painting, Giotto led the way in giving the human figure a greater sense of physical presence” (“Renaissance Art”, 2004). It is through the work of Giotto (1266-1337) that artists began working on creating more realistic pictures of the human figure and present them as more dimensional. “Even during his lifetime, he was admired and highly regarded for his naturalism and his expressive, representative art” (Gallwitz, 1999, p. 116). Masaccio (1401-1428) introduced a new way of using perspective and proportion to achieve dimension, as well as using light to bring out the contours of his elements. With the advent of the wealthy merchant class and the desire for self-aggrandizement, a new form of art emerged in the form of the portrait, for which Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510) set the example for expression in the human face by accurately portraying the images of political leaders, but doing so in such a way that their positive individual characteristics are brought out and they are given a certain impression of power and wealth. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) again revolutionized the artistic world with his explorations in color, light, landscapes and expression. Michelangelo (1475-1564), in his painting of the Sistine Chapel, had a tremendous impact on the rounded forms of the figures in later works by Raphael. Raphael (1483-1520) further pushed the idea of naturalism with his focus on composition, balance and unity. Throughout the approximately two centuries in which the Renaissance flourished in Florence, there were significant advancements not only in the way in which artists approached their craft, but also in the techniques, subjects and methods in which this was accomplished. In developing the idea of a return to the classical ideals and mathematical knowledge regarding naturalism and mathematical inclusion in creating more realistic images and representations, Italy led the way for the rest of the world. Although these innovations were not limited to Italy – the Renaissance also took place in Germany, France, Spain and England – the definitions of art coming out of this period of production were much different from the understanding of art coming out of the Middle Ages. Subjects, materials, techniques and even mediums changed significantly as the additional influences of the secular community and science entered the arena. Works Cited Campbell, Gordon. Renaissance Art and Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Gallwitz, Karl Ludwig. The Handbook of Italian Renaissance Painters. Munich: Prestel, 1999. Lemaitre, Alain J. & Lessing, Erich. Florence and the Renaissance. Paris: Terrail Press. National Gallery of Art. “Byzantine Art and Painting in Italy During the 1200s and 1300s.” (2007). February 26, 2008 Pioch, Nicolas. “Le Renaissance: Italy.” WebMuseum, Paris. (October 14, 2002). February 26, 2008 < http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/renaissance/it.html> “Renaissance Art and Architecture.” The Columbia Encyclopedia. Sixth Ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. Rymer, Eric. “Middle Ages Painting.” History Link. (2004). February 26, 2008 Read More