Tourism Transport Policies in Ireland - Coursework Example

Tourism transport policies in Ireland The Ireland department of tourism, transport and sport, 2012 demonstrates that the tourism and hospitality industry remains a main economic booster in the country contributing over 60 per cent of the country’s economic growth. The industry according to the department is reliably providing over 180,000 jobs annually and consequently is generating astounding 2.7 billion pounds foreign revenue. Domestic earnings from the industry by the year 2010 stood at an estimated 1.3 billion pounds. However, the nature of the industry prompts the government to put in place extemporary policies as per the potentiality of the industry to generate even more revenues to the government strategically (Fàilte Ireland, 2006). The Ireland government is out to set a more result oriented approach to the industry as evidenced in its Statement of Strategy (2008-2010) which stated that, “To support the growth of a competitive and sustainable tourism industry, enhancing its contribution to national economic and social goals, through the development, implementation and influencing of a range of policy actions and programmes by the Department, it’s Agencies and other Government Departments, in consultation with industry partners”. The tourism department is henceforth mandated to work in conjunction with other related department to help in achieving the goals and objectives as outlined in the policy statement which is out to transform the tourism industry in a multibillion revenue generating source to the government. In this regard, department of transport and communication has a significant role to play (Peeters et al., 2006). Ideally, Ireland has a unique attraction to tourists. The serene environment portrayed by the leisurely and splendid landscapes is just some of what attracts tourist both locally and internationally. The strategic policy has also ensured that sporting and recreational facilities and also offers an integral part in tourist attraction within the country. This has partly contributed to the growth of local tourism as well as international tourism (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). Activities such as cycling, golfing, equestrian and other activities have boosted the tourism industry significantly. However, the industry is faced by an ever increasing global competition from both within the continent and out of the continent. This necessitates the vigilance of the industry in terms of prices and pressures due to inflation from fluctuations in the exchange rates. All in all the department is doing the best in its capacity to sustain the growing numbers of tourist and also enhancing the accessibility of the tourist destinations both from the local tourist and international visitors (Asian Development Bank, 2005). In a nut shell, tourism industry in Ireland is increasingly maturing in complexity and the major departmental challenge is whether or not the existing infrastructure is able to match the growing trend in this industry. As pointed out earlier, an integration of this department with other departments such as the transport and communication departments will oversee the realization of the future of tourism industry in the country (Irish Government Publication, 2007). It has been postulated that one of the main gearing principals of growth of the tourism industry in Ireland is the improved quality of its accessibility through air and sea to the rest of the world. Statistics have shown that by the year 2002, an estimated 20 million passengers arrived in the cities of Dublin, Shannon and Cork. This was a rise as compared to the 11 million people who arrived in the same cities in the year 1995. The same statistics have shown that most passengers up to about 80 percent of those who travel to the country use the Dublin airport. This aura can probably be explained by the lowering of air fares and the increased capacity and efficiency of the airport operations. Access of the country through the sea also contributes significantly to the visitors arriving to the country (Fàilte Ireland, 2006). In essence, the tourism department has tried to formulate policies which will maximize the efficiency of transport services offered to the customers. The survival Action 2 aims at cutting the access cost to the country in order to help keep the tourism market within the Ireland environs. According to this policy-SA2, the quality and range of access to the island is greatly influenced by the cost of transport. With the rising costs of fuels, the travel agencies are sometimes compelled to hike air ticket costs which have selective disadvantages to other destinations which probably will cost the customers less. Ireland cannot compromise its customers at any cost and therefore this policy allows the costs of air tickets to remain relatively affordable to the customers by ensuring that the air travel tax is greatly cut down if not abolished (Bord Failte, 2000). However, the department despite its elimination of air travels tax faces a competitive disadvantage as other governments adopts this strategy and removes or reduces air travel taxes significantly. Other governments have as well gone a step ahead to remove other travel related levies upon realization of their negative effects on the industry. This therefore has affected tourism to Ireland as tourist can enjoy free of relatively cheap travel costs to other destinations within Europe and other countries outside the continent. For instance in 2008, Belgium reduced its air travel taxes while Netherlands completely removed the travel tax and other levies relating to air travel. Other countries like Greece have as well removed levies at their regional airports all in an aim to promote tourism within their territories. In this context, the department considers that the gains from air travel taxes are greatly outweighed by the foreign earnings that are as a result of the tourism industry once the industry is promoted. However, the removal of tax benefits from the industry is significantly affecting the already under pressure tourism industry a factor that has lead to the need of re-evaluation of the policy by the Commission on Taxation (Jurgen and Gross, 2007). The tourist department is however working together with the transport department to ensure there is ease in access to the Ireland despite the fact that there is increased competitive disadvantage due to reduced transport costs to many destinations around the world and especially in Europe (CERT, 2002). The transport department is doing everything possible to ensure that the tourists are able to move to any part of the country using their preferred mode of transport. This is happened due to the recent development in transport infrastructure including new roads and sea transport routes as well as enhances air travel agencies run both by the private enterprises and government owned travel agencies (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). The government has continued to support the industry by providing funding which are directed to improving the already existing transport routes and also to open up new routes where need be. The government has especially supported the inter-modal links. In so doing, the efficiency of transport within the island is greatly enhanced and this also allows maximized use of the already existing infrastructure. Such inter-modal links has seen transport systems which link the sea; road and air transport (Peeters et al., 2006). Initially, local transport remained a source of customer dissatisfaction especially the nature of the already existing signposting. The government however has realized this phenomenon and are doing their best to improve on the signposting especially in the national routes that more often used by the tourists in accessing the island. This has not only facilitated ease of movement and transport to the country but has also enhanced improves usability of the local roads and other transport routes used by the tourists to access different places of the country. Other services including navigation aiding by satellite operators has greatly eased transport both within the country and out of the country (Jurgen and Gross, 2007). It has also been perceived that poor internal transport systems in Ireland discourage to substantial levels the discouragement of tourists visit in the country. The department of transport has laid down plan to rejuvenate the transport systems within the country and this is aimed at enhancing the growth of the tourism industry. The department is also aiming at modernizing public transport facilities and improves the cycling and walking spaces along the roads to boost tourist satisfaction and experience within the country. Measures has also been taken to enhance other transport services like the car hire (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). This will also help in boosting and encouraging tourist visit to many places within the country. This sector has also led to the need for government sponsored agencies to manage the car hire costs and also ensure that such cars meet the standards required to cruise to various destinations within the country as per the requirements of the customer. It is also vitally important for the government to intervene in couch operators that offer transport of tourist in order to manage exploitation of the customers by the private sector. The government has effectively managed and has helped significantly in correcting the deviations that had discouraged the growth of the industry (Jurgen and Gross, 2007). In the past few years, air transport in the European Union was liberalized a phenomenon which saw increased competition in travel by tourists across Europe. Revolutionizing air travel to and from Ireland which was characterized by changing the pricing structures and route changing helped the country in easing itself from the pressure that had developed from inter competition across Europe. Since then, the Irish government introduced new airline carriers and also saw to the expansion of the already existing airlines (Fàilte Ireland, 2006). The result of additional airlines is predicted to impact positively and will ease the pressure of competition from other tourist destinations within Europe. In addition, the government’s objective to fully own the airports of Dublin, Shannon and Cork is aimed to fully strengthen the autonomy of the operations of the airports. This is seen as a counteractive strategy against the removal of travel tax by many governments in the European Union and therefore will place Ireland at a better position in regard to other tourist destinations. The airports also need to be equipped with the best visitor welcoming facilities in order to match Ireland’s reputation as a first priority tourist destination across the whole of Europe (Jurgen and Gross, 2007). Apart from air travel, sea travel has also increasingly contributed towards the growth of tourism industry. Ferry services have increased greatly with significant levels of increased fleet investment by both private and public sectors. It is important to note here that ferry services of both cars and passengers is a requirement for tourists who need to bring in their cars from native countries. Apart from benefiting the tourism sector, such passengers help in sustaining the transport sector as well (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004). The Irish Maritime Transport Division is the department which has been given the mandate to ensure policy execution and implementation as regards to ports, harbors, pollution prevention in the Irish Sea waters and in general they manage the shipping activities at the ports. The Division Statement of Strategy 2011-2013 is to ensure that facilitation of efficient maritime transportation services are availed to the local populations and to the international populations who come to the country for different reasons (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). The maritime transport policy ensures that the gross marine turnover for the country’s revenue is from the shipping activities which are directly connected to the tourist arrival and departure from the country. The department has also been mandated to formulate environmental protection laws which are aimed at protecting the waters against environmental pollution in the course of shipping activities on the Irish waters. This is an integral responsibility of the Maritime Division as the waters are a part and parcel of the country’s tourist attraction sites and therefore the dire need of their protection against pollution (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004). There are international conventions that have been met to protect the sea waters against pollution through shipping activities. MARPOL 73/78 is an international convention that oversees sea pollution from oil spillages and hazardous material disposal in the sea from ships. There are also conventional laws that have been met which ensure that the ship bodies are not made from any environmentally potential pollutants including paints which may cause harm to the aquatic life in one way or another. The division also ensures that there is preparedness to respond to incidences which may take place in the territorial waters (World Tourism Organization, 2004). The maritime division is also oriented to provide safety transport in the sea. This has been achieved by creation of appropriate and well managed organizational platforms which are directed to delivering improved maritime safety to sea users. They are also objective in providing continued support to cultural enhancement and training sea users on seas safety practices. This in one way or another enhances safety of the sea users and encourages tourist to the visit the country often. All this is accomplished through integration of appropriate enforcement of safety regulations with directed focus on promotion of sea activities including fishing (United Nations ESCAP, 2004). Security issues are an important factor that tends to boost tourism. In many instances, security compromise discourages tourism. As a matter of fact, this issue has been in the front line in discouraging tourism in nations where security issues are compromised. In t his regard the Irish government has entered into conventional agreements in an attempt to safeguards its interest in tourism by boosting the security in maritime areas. In July 2001, the government entered into the international Maritime organization (IMO) which aims at suppressing act of international terrorism against merchant and passengers ships. The Safe Sea Ireland is a protocol that has been engaged by member states of the European Union Ireland being one of them and is focused on engaging member states in monitoring of maritime traffic in European Union territorial waters. All these acts and law enforcements are aimed at boosting security profile which consequently has had great effect in encouraging and boosting the tourism industry across the European Union and especially in Ireland (United Nations ESCAP, 2004). The Roads Safety Authority (RSA), National Roads Authority (NSA) and the local authorities work hand in hand to realize an integrated framework of roads to ease traffic congestion and ensure safe cruising of motorists on these roads. The three departments have an overall objective integrated in the transport policy which is to ensure an effective and efficient movement of people and goods on these roads. In this regard the boosting of local roads as well as those that link Ireland to other countries is given preference as an integral boost to political, economic and social perspectives (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). Such has enabled expansion and introduction of more road network across the country and regionally. According to the country’s strategic plans, roads open up the country and encourage tourism which is an important generator of wealth to the country. According to the Transport Investment division, there has been an overall focus by the government to fund projects which will see to it the road system within the country is up to standards. Millions of pounds in form of grants have been directed to improving the road network as indicated by the table below (World Tourism Organization, 2004). Details of all grants in 2010 by category  Restoration Improvement   €188,807,000  Restoration Maintenance   €60,000,000  Discretionary Maintenance   €51,000,000  Specific Improvement Grants €33,901,219  Strategic Regional & Local Roads €23,698,543  Low Cost Safety Improvement Works €6,268,195  Block Urban   €26,512,000  Local Improvements Scheme   €5,000,000  Regional & Local Roads Training Programme  €2,157,243  Regional Road Signposting Programme  €4,900,000  Footpath Provision - Former Town Commissions  €4,080,067  Miscellaneous special grants Met Station etc.  €2,030,500 (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004) Sustainable initiatives that the Irish government has taken to minimize the effects of transport and tourism on the environment. In many countries whose economic backbone is greatly influenced by tourism, there remains questionable doubts on whether the impact of tourism to the environment is positive or negative. Ireland remains a serene environment and therefore protection against pollution is paramount. In this regard Failte Island’s National Tourism Development Authority developed a review commission whose main objectives were to develop a good environmental conservation and maintenance protocol bearing in mind that this was the key tourist attraction in the country. Apart from environmental issues, the development of transport systems and tourism has led to the emergence of other issues including environmental pollution, poor planning and traffic congestion. Reports have shown that continued environmental degradation in the urban areas and suburbs in Ireland continued to cause customer dissatisfaction which led to reduced numbers of visitors who visited the country. In 2005 the number of visitors fell by a significant margin of about 2 percent. This trend calls for immediate intervention of the government to correct the vices which we the major causes of the fall. Statistics have also shown that in the same year about 13 per cent of tourists who visited the country were dissatisfied by the litter around the urban centres. In the year that followed, the number of the visitors who were dissatisfied by the nature of the environment rose up to about 21 per cent (Irish Government Publication, 2007). Focus has however since then been heightened and the government focused on enlightening the urban population to change their attitudes towards the environment and to adopt the measures to tidy up the towns. The Tidy Towns Competition that was conducted by environmental teams set to correct the situation can be seen as a prospective approach. This approach was widely accepted and it demonstrated the mindset of the public towards environmental conservation. Key findings of a research that was conducted by The Green Agenda in 2002 postulates that most of the Irish people consider waste management as the first step towards correcting the environmental degradation issues that faced the country (Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport, 2012). The report also showed that most of them were ready to adopt waste management practises such as burning household wastes in their backyards. However some of the populations confirmed that they were illegally involved in dumping of their household wastes (World Tourism Organization, 2004). This survey also indicated that the public were however conscious about illegal dumping of waste in the country. The Irish government has been involved in development of various policies that have attempted to conserve the natural serenity of the environment. The EPA Environment in Focus of 2006 stated key findings in regard to environmental focus. The focus postulated that the country was recording improved levels in far as waste management is considered. The waste management infrastructural growth was a key strategy that helps the government in maintaining environmental cleanliness. The waste recycling facilities put in place by the government as well as by private enterprises helped the country in greatly reducing the amount of waste papers that littered the environment (Irish Government Publication, 2007). The transport sector has also been in a part and parcel of the environmental degradation causes. The increased use of motor vehicles in the tourism industry has resulted to increased emissions of carbon monoxide gases which are a great risk in propelling towards global warming. The radical effects of this phenomenon cannot be overemphasized. Increased tourist motorist use has also led to increased traffic congestion especially by road. In this regard, the government has committed itself in easing this road traffic by notably expanding the infrastructural capacities to accommodate the increased number of motorists using the roads (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004) The Green Agenda of 2002 was accompanied by recommendations which were aimed at maintaining environmental entity and managing the degradation that had already destroyed the face of the environment. The Green Alert as was recommended by the commission creates an environmental awareness. The immediate call of the awareness programme is to recommend green practises adoption by the increased industries. According to the National Water Study, in the year 2000 47 per cent of water was treated but could not reach the supposed consumer due to pollution. Tourism was ascribed as a potential cause of water pollution. This is through could have been possible considering that poor drainage and treatment of sewage by then was a rampant issue. Unmaintained septic tanks would have been a source of raw sewage into the water bodies. Discharge of untreated water from swimming pools also stood as a potential water pollutant. Increased use of detergent from tourist lounges and considering the poorly maintained sewerage systems could as well have resulted to water pollution (Irish Government Publication, 2007). Potential water pollutant sources in the tourism and hospitality industry. (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004) This table is an analysis of the different sectors in the tourism industry which are directly or indirectly involved in water issues. Apart from water pollution, the tourism industry has also contributed significantly to increased solid waste in the urban areas and the suburbs of the big towns in Ireland. Such wastes have been associated with increased need for landfills and production of methane gas. Solid waste disposal in an obvious manner contributes significantly to environmental defacing. This necessitates strategies that will correct this vice and rebuild the face of the country. In 2004, there was over 3 million tonnes of solid waste that was collected by the municipal authorities in Ireland (EPA CGPP Project Report, 2004). Strategies like recycling of some of the solid waste materials from the municipal collections greatly influenced waste management and has reduced significantly the amount of these waste on land and in water. Other strategies as postulated earlier involved introduction of competitions for the cleanest cities. This saw to the reduction of such waste disposal in the cities. (Northern Ireland Tourist Board, 2004) The grid above shows some of the sources of solid waste materials in the tourism industry. It is important to note here that tourism activities do not consider waste management as an important issue. This perception greatly influenced the industry to be a big threat in as far as environmental degradation is concerned. The other major issue that has affected the transport and tourism industry in Ireland is traffic congestion. Apart from inconveniencies caused by traffic congestion on roads, the increased numbers of motor vehicles on roads has greatly contributed to the green house effect in the country. Carbon dioxide is the major green house gas that is related to transport. Motor vehicles emit carbon dioxide from burning of gasohol. Nitrogen oxides are also a source of green house effect and sometimes are released from motor vehicles as a result of burning fuels with nitrogen compounds. Reports have shown that in 2002, transport especially by road accounts for over 93 per cent of all the carbon dioxide emissions. Technologies to increase the efficiency of motor vehicle engines have as well contributed significantly towards the increased emission of green house gases. Air travel has also been attributed to increased green house effect. It has been shown that an aeroplane can produce as green house gas in one day as an average car can produce in one year. The effects of green house gases cannot be left unsaid. The future threats in the rising of sea levels can have dramatic effects on Ireland bearing in mind that is an island. The Irish government is committed to encouraging tourism due to the nature of the industry towards economic salvage of the country. However, the emerging issues have encouraged the government to seek policies that will correct the vices associated with tourism and as well maintain the good attributes of the industry. As per say, there has been recommendations that have been put across to help realize the goals. The environmental programmes in the country for instance have ensured very high waste disposal costs. This has greatly ensured that the sectors which are responsible for high waste disposal activities adopt improved waste management strategies which include waste elimination from the sources (EPA CGPP Project Report, 2006). In regard to traffic congestion the government is working hand in hand with planning consultants to expand the available infrastructure. The government also tries to seek influence local communities to adopt necessary strategies which will be geared towards the development of sustainable tourism. The government is doing this to enable private investors to assist in the provision of necessary infrastructural services to the tourists. There is also the provision of necessary choices of transport to tourist. This is inclusive of bicycles considering that some tourists would want to ride around some of these tourist destination centres rather than riding in motor vehicles. This strategy has eased to great extent road congestion as well as the levels of green house gases that are emitted from gasohol fuelled cars. The introduction of the commonly referred “greenways” which link the major towns to the local tourist destinations have also encouraged and seen to reduced traffic congestion in the public transport road systems. In regard to the amounts of green gases released from aeroplanes, the government has tried to seek transport plans using the sea which is said to be less polluting than the former. Also, there is campaign of use of electric trains and cars by tourists. This has greatly reduced the effects of the green house gases and has helped to mitigate the negative effects impacted to the environment on the same (United Nations, 2006). Transport and travel initiatives in China China stands as an icon of rich cultural background across Asia. Apart from the preserve of the culture, china stands as a favoured tourist destination. The industry contributes significantly to the economy of the country and the government is doing so much to polish up the few challenges that face the industry. One of the strategies that the government of china has adopted is enhancement of the transport means into and out of china. Bearing in mind that tourism has an inseparable attributes to good transport systems, the government of china has realized this and are doing the best to modernize and expand the transport systems. The industrial revolution in China and the technological advancement has enabled china to realize some of the best transport integrated systems in the world. The government has joined hands with private sector to furnish the tourism industry for the benefits of the country (United Nations, 2006). The country has adopted a corporate travel environment where the suppliers of transport services and any other travel arrangement into and out of the country are managed by the government through its corporate bodies. In fact the government in some instances own the supply agencies including airlines, global distribution systems (GDS) and some agencies that manage the travel of tourist to and around the country. This has not only ensured consumer satisfaction and confidence with the services offered but gas as well integrated the funds that the government gets from the industry (ESCAP, 2002). These regulatory services in transport have led to the realization of a macro-regulatory scenario where the airline travel arrangements and bookings are done through commissions that have been created by the government. Ctrip for instance is a government owned travel agency that is makes approximately up to 80 per cent of the travel arrangement made to china. This achievement by this corporate travel agency is an epitome of actually how much success the government managed agencies can achieve in comparison to private agencies. It is also important to point out here that, government ownership of travel companies and agencies scares away foreign investors into the industry and as a result the government is left to enjoy all the revenue that the industry generates. However, the corporate ownership of these agencies is not without flaws. There is the feel by the customers that the rates offered by these agencies are actually not the most competitive one they can get. There is therefore the feeling that they are somehow exploited by these government owned agencies. This somehow threatens the management of these agencies which are sometimes compelled to offer very cheap services which are not economical in as far as revenue generation concerned (ESCAP, 2002). The revolution has been made in many department of the transport industry. The enabling of extensive use of corporate credit cards as well as personal credit cards has enhanced the transport industry particularly for the visitors from the United States and Europe who do not prefer to carry cash. The corporate agencies have also been reported to give cash advances to the customer so as they can cover their subsidiary expenses. This service has encouraged visitors to use these agencies because the private sector finds it difficult to offer such essential services (Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government, 2007). As pointed out earlier china is one of the countries in which the IT development in its greatest heights. Many innovations that have been made are integrated into various sector of the economy of the country. This has therefore seen the development of automated systems to manage the corporate travel agencies. This has allowed bookings of travel tickets and hotel rooms by visitors from their native countries through external websites. Sources have shown that such bookings have increases recently and can be estimated to have reached up to 25 per cent in the year 2009. Such systems have had great positive effects of cost reduction, efficiency in control as well as improving and easing management of the agencies (Environmental Protection Agency, 2006). It is evident that in every country whose economic backbone is supported by tourism, the need to be a well managed transport system. This will ensure that travelling of the tourists within the country and into the country is eased. Many governments have realized this and are working tirelessly to ensure that the tourism sector is at peak. This phenomenon has therefore led to increased competition by governments to try and attract tourists into their countries. There is no different in Ireland and in china (United Nations ESCAP, 2004). However, there are negative results that are associated with tourism. Such includes the question of pollution, degradation of culture and the introduction of inhuman behaviours including smuggling of drugs, humans and such issues like homosexuality. The governments should therefore see to it that they have done their best to present the eruption of negative vices as a result of tourism. In so doing, there is the economic gain that cannot go unnoticed as a result of tourism. The trade has boosted many economies and especially those of the developing countries. Also, tourism has encouraged international cohesion and integration among countries which has in overall enhanced international harmony and security. Through such bonds, the international community has been entwined together and have been enforced to work together for the common good of the international community. Through such practises, vices like international terrorism have been discouraged and have actually gone down significantly. Cultural exchanges and technology dispensation has as well spread all over across the world. It has also led to improved in infrastructure in many countries which can be enjoyed by the local people as well as the tourists. References Asian Development Bank 2005, Sixteenth Meeting of the Working Group on the Greater Mekong Subregion Tourism Sector, 25-27 March 2005 Bord Failte 2000, Tourism Development Strategy 2000-2006 CERT 2002, The Green Agenda: The Challenge for Irish Tourism and Hospitality. Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government 2007, National Climate Change Strategy 2007-2012 Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport 2012, viewed on 1 may 2012 Environmental Protection Agency 2006, Environment in Focus, vol. 1 pg 40-44 EPA CGPP Project Report 2004, Environmental actions leading to increased profitability at Renvyle House Hotel EPA CGPP Project Report 2006, Development of a Cleaner Production programme for the Irish Hotel Industry: “Greening Irish Hotels”. ESCAP 2002, “Promotion of Buddhist Tourism Circuits in Selected Asian Countries”, Tourism Review Number 24 (New York: United Nations, 2003). Fàilte Ireland 2006, Tourism Business and Employment Survey. Irish Government Publication 2007, Ireland National Development Plan 2007-2013: Transforming Ireland. Jurgen, R. and Gross, S. 2007, “Taking Travel & Tourism to the Next Level: Shaping World Economic Forum, The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007, Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2007. Northern Ireland Tourist Board 2004, Pilot Green Tourism Scheme Peeters, P., Gössling, S. and Becken, S. 2006, ‘Innovation towards tourism sustainability: climate change and aviation’, Int. J. Innovation and Sustainable Development, Vol.1, No. 3, pp.184–200. United Nations 2006, Priority Investment Needs for the Development of the Asian Highway Network (New York: United Nations ESCAP, 2006), pp. 26, 34. (ST/ESCAP/2424) United Nations ESCAP 2004, Manual on Modernization of Inland Water Transport for Integration within a Multimodal Transport System (New York: United Nations, 2004), pp.105-106. ST/ESCAP/2285 World Tourism Organisation 2004, Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations: A Guidebook. Read More