Local Communities Perceptions of Tourism Development in the National Park - Literature review Example

Critical review of literature: Local communities’ perceptions on tourism development in the national park Introduction of the chapter Tourism development is one of the most important economic and financial developments which can be observed in any community. Especially in instances where a local community plays host to a tourist attraction, its viability as a tourist site can ultimately be a beneficial venture for local communities. Tourism is a fast growing large-scale industry (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). In 2004 alone, many European countries indicate more than 440 million tourists, translating to about 10% of Europe’s GDP as well as 20 million jobs for the continent (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). As a result, the tourism industry is called on to respond accordingly to the demands placed by increased tourist visitors and the impact of these tourist entrants on the environment. The ideas relating to development and tourist capacity were the focus of studies on tourism from the 1960s to the early 1980s (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). The dominant mass tourism during such time period was known for their apparent unfavourable impact on the environment. As a result, with economies going through high rates of consumption and production, the concept of sustainable tourism was transported from the peripheries to the centre-stage of the tourism discussion. Ecology and environmental concerns played a major hand in the discussion (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Such issues are based on the momentous and important World Commission on Environment and Development report, a report which focuses on promoting development and environmental sustainability. Moreover, the report highlighted the relevance of intergenerational and intragenerational equity, in support of social equity, as well as cultural diversity (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). 2. Sustainability The World Commission on Environment and Development discusses that sustainable development is that development which fulfils the needs of the present without affecting the ability of future generations to also meet their own needs (as cited by Harris, 2003). Three aspects of sustainable development have been developed throughout the years, and this includes, the economic, the environmental, and the social aspects of sustainability. In economic sustainability, an economically sustainable system should support goods as well as services in a continuing fashion, covering different levels of government and external obligations, and avoiding sectoral gaps which impact on agricultural as well as industrial sustainability. For environmental sustainability, the system must promote a stable resource base, veering away from the over-use of renewable resource systems or environmental risks, as well as consuming non-renewable resources to the point where investment can be secured within sufficient substitutes (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). This would cover biodiversity, stability and other ecosystems. In relation to social sustainability, there would be a socially supported system which must secure fair terms in relation to distribution, sufficient provisions for social services, alongside health and education as well as political accountability (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Sustainable tourism, as a social and ideal construct is dynamic as it is constantly being reframed, depending on the stakeholders and personalities involved. It is also a political construct which uses values systems and ethical perspectives which refer to knowledge as well as power (Reeder and Brown, 2014). At its core, there are issues relating to economy and equity, including environmental protection and cultural perspectives. The Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) indicates that tourism can destroy special qualities of the environment which are essential to sustainability; on the other hand, tourism can also be the driving force for the conservation and promotion of the environment and culture, eventually promoting sustainability (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). As a result, tourism and its incorporation within the rural setting can help secure employment opportunities. It can also promote local development, conservation and maintenance of the ecology, including the establishment of cultural tools which can promote economic, social and cultural benefits. However, not all parties believe that the benefits exceed costs. As argued by Reeder and Brown (2014), in most instances, concerns have been seen in terms of job quality, including tourism development and its impact on rural development. Although advantages are very much apparent, for instance, in growing businesses, landowners, and farmers earning profits from supplemental income, there are still other benefits or outcomes (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Issues can rise between the interest groups relating to different elements of sustainable tourism, mostly between those which focus on a developmental approach and those which focus on an ecological perspective. Sustainability on its own may be considered a commodified entity by the tourism industry (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Even as the European Union believes that the tourism industry can support economic, social, and environmental goals and they must also move forward together. In fact, the establishment of sustainable tourism is filled with obstacles. On one hand, environmental and social systems are actually interrelated with each other and on the other hand, there are simulated delineations created as specialists forwarding segmented knowledge, including related data and business advice (Varley, et.al., 2013). As pointed out by Varley, et.al., (2013), sustainability is most likely affected by significant struggles and issues, with concepts of sustainability affecting each other, and also as competition over incompatible goals and inadequate resources cause tension. Tourism groups actually do not often function in close coordination with each other, and these groups do not necessarily indicate a collective acceptance of related activities. Sustainable tourism highlights the dynamic relationship between the human and physical setting. The adaptive concept supports the exploration of options by identifying priorities and the consideration of favoured options. The International Guidelines for Sustainable Tourism is based on a model popular during the 1970s and used to consider the uncertainties of the complex ecology (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). It is also often used by policymakers, as seen in partnerships stablished by the EU and its Water Framework Directive. The adaptive approach considers the fact that various groups may have various values and needs, including ecological conservation goals which may not match the goals of local communities (Plummer and Baird, 2013). In effect, rather than using an unconditional decision, adaptive tourism considers the importance of flexibility in order to highlight competing issues, while also considering distinct circumstances. Adaptive management has aspects of uncertainty as well as complexities and conflict. It accepts uncertainty in the sense that in instances where it is successful, the approach is supported, but where issues in policy are not successful, the adaptive approach is created in order to support learning (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Adjustments can then follow and future actions can be founded on new concepts. Stakeholders work with each other through shared power and responsibility and the establishment of a learning setting which supports the establishment of new data. The complexities arising from it cannot therefore be downplayed as it calls for the understanding of the value and elements social relations (Yang, et.al. 2013). It also calls for change, the acceptance of new styles of working, increased flexibility, acceptance of uncommon practices, and the support of political awareness and change. Also, conflict may arise when stakeholders do not identify the common grounds among the parties, and when there is neglect of important social relations (Yang, et.al., 2013). Sustainability is the foundation of rural policy, ideally seeking to secure sustainable development as a primary element of the EU, including national, and local policies in recent years. Such objectives are supported via the European Agriculture Rural Development Fund where the EU LEADER (Links between actions for the development of the rural economy) approach has been popularly applied (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). The financial support seeks to ensure improvements in terms of competitiveness of agriculture and forestry while also ensuring environmental sustainability and land management, including diverse rural economic development. Primarily, Pillar Two of the Common Agricultural Policy seeks to assist rural communities in securing development and diversity (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Moreover, member states are discrete in establishing their plans and expenses. The resources include traditional agricultural activities including more widespread rural development plans including plans for villages, the protection and conservation of rural heritage sites, and ensuring land improvements, diversity. Farmers and non-farmers are able to access available financial assistance (Reeder and Brown, 2014). Also, member states need to develop their plans, and to support rural development support in terms of three themes: improvement of competitiveness for the agricultural sector, developing the environment, and developing the quality of life of rural areas, as well as supporting diversity and the rural economy (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Salient features in the LEADER methodology are relevant to this topic, including the need to ensure specificity of rural tourism emanating from the European rural development model (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). Local action groups (LAGS) are locally active, as they can be more flexible in their own setting. LAGs support the LEADER methodology and its focus on partnership capacity as well as on securing local initiatives and cooperation (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). With these tools, groups are able to secure their own development strategies which focus on the specific features of a locality and as such consider all local qualities, including products, foods, crafts, language, culture, dialect, landscape, and even music (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). As the failure for consensus on sustainable development implies that it is a debatable concept, tensions have been observed between the economic and social goals and the relevance of rural development. There is no plan for effective rural development (Moric, 2013). As such, through agricultural restructuring, economic and cultural diversity and environmental management affecting the current European sustainable tourism plan, the process calls for the coordination of interest groups and stakeholders which are seeking common goals in order to ensure rural development (McAreavey and McDonagh, 2011). They must also consider and express the related preferences and priorities based on regional and national perspectives. The general process is not often straightforward and issues have already been seen within the current programmes and policies, as stakeholders are managing to balance between active involvement and promoting leadership (Moric, 2013). This implies that the adaptive management paradigm is an appropriate paradigm in managing such differentiated interests and concerns. 2.1. Social Aspects of Sustainability, impacts The social aspects of sustainable tourism focus on human rights and on managing opportunities for members of society (Lisse, 2014). Just as economic sustainability supports the idea that the profits from tourism can be secured within local communities, social sustainability considers the distribution of such profits (Lisse, 2014). The focus is on managing the exploitation of one group in relation to the possible gain of another. 2.1.1. Social Aspects in Relation to Tourism In relation to tourism, social aspects relate to the loss of local identity and values, the displacement of indigenous communities, cultural clashes, and the emergence of ethical issues including criminal generation, child labour, sex tourism, and human trafficking (Terrero, 2014). Tourist destinations are often marketed as products and in order to meet tourist expectations, some local communities often have to change their religious practices, festivals, as well as their traditions (Terrero, 2014). As a result, authenticity is lost because of the need to adapt to cultural expressions to match the tastes of tourists. Throughout the years, tourism development caused displacement of local communities. Governments and private companies have been known to forcefully push out these communities to usher in tourist development (Terrero, 2014). Such communities as a result have been deprived of their sources of income, have been prompted to find other places to live in, sometimes in places where the resources are not as abundant. With hotels built along waterfronts, fishing villages are pushed back and beaches are often privatized, preventing fishermen from performing their work (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). Some of these displaced locals are indigenous groups which are ethnically different from the local population. They also are often culturally and spiritually linked with their lands. Indigenous communities are often affected by tourism activities and developments, as most of them do not have formal titles to their lands (Terroro, 2014. They are most likely to lose ownership of their lands and to lose access to their livelihood. As a result, they join the throng of the poor members of society, often subject to social, economic, and political issues. Most times, they are not considered in tourism development (Terroro, 2014). Such displacement has been known to impact negatively to the culture of these indigenous communities. Cultural clashes may also arise from tourist activities. As individuals of varying cultures work with each other, there may be mixture of cultures and religions, including lifestyles which can lead to cultural conflicts and issues in adapting to new lifestyles (Terroro, 2014). Physical influences of tourism on local communities may also involve cultural deterioration where damage to culture may come about due to vandalism, littering, pilferage, as well as the theft of cultural heritage items (Terroro, 2014). 3. Defining a Community 3.1. Sense of Community The sense of community and participation are main elements which can affect processes relating to tourism development. Minus the participation of the community and a sense of community, tourism development cannot be secured. The sense of community relates to the quality of human relations which can help individuals live with each other within healthy and sustainable environs (Aref, 2011). This sense of community has a crucial role to play in ensuring community support for tourism development and may ensure its sustainability as a foundation for the planning of tourism development. 3.2. Community Perceptions A sense of community helps communities and locals participates as it helps ensure that people would feel connected with each other and working in harmony with each other in securing common goals (Aref, 2011). A sense of community relates to the capacity of locals to take part in development activities. Where more locals are able to support tourist-related activities, they would embrace the elements relating to the tourism, ensuring that tourists are welcomed into their community, and that these tourists would be assisted in their ventures into and activities in their community. 4. Defining a National Park The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (2014) indicated that national parks are large areas which have various ecosystems which are not materially affected by human exploitation or occupation, and where flora and fauna, as well as habitats have scientific interest and feature natural landscapes (IUCN, 2014). It also refers to areas where the national authority of the country has made strides in order to prevent its exploitation in order to ensure respect for ecological or aesthetic features (IUCN, 2014). National parks are areas where people are permitted to enter, but under specific conditions, mostly for educational, cultural, or recreational purposes (IUCN, 2014). 4.1. Communities in National Parks Communities in national parks are the locals and indigenous communities who have inhabited the area for a long period of time. Before these parks have been declared as national parks, many indigenous communities already consider these areas their homes. Many of them maintain it and help protect it as a source of their sustenance (Mijele, et.al., 2013). Other communities in national parks may not be indigenous communities but may live in the peripheries of the park. Some of them may not have as much dependence or an interdependent relationship with the park, but nevertheless, they are likely to be affected by the park activities (Mijele, et.al., 2013). Some of them provide services to tourists and through these services are able to earn their living. 4.2. Opportunities and Challenges for Communities within and near National Parks 4.2.1. Opportunities for Communities in National Parks Communities in national parks have major opportunities, mostly income and economic opportunities. Many of them can provide food, lodging, and other services to tourists. In various national parks, local residents have built lodgings and inns to accommodate tourists (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). Many of them have opened restaurants, cafes, and other food establishments to serve the needs of tourists. Many of the residents also serve as tourist guides, guiding the tourists through the parks and educating them about the park, and guiding them into prime locations for exploration (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). These local communities are also able to explore and earn money through their crafts. Souvenir items which may be made from local products can also serve as sources of living for these local communities. 4.2.2. Challenges facing Communities in National Parks Despite the benefits and opportunities which can be enjoyed by local communities in national parks, there are also challenges (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). These challenges refer to the difficulties faced in balancing the ecological protection and the economic opportunities for these communities. In the desire for local communities to earn a living off of the influx of tourists, they may continue to expand their economic activities, to the point where they are encroaching into the national park lands (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). In areas where the monitoring and protection of park territories is not strict, it is easy enough for these communities to encroach on park lands. Another challenge is on how these local communities can preserve their culture amidst the influx of tourists. The younger population within their local communities are vulnerable to modern influences, including the influences from tourists (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). The challenge for local communities is on how to keep the younger generations sufficiently interested and respectful of their local culture, enough to preserve and protect it (Hampton and Jeyacheya, 2014). It is important for these local communities to also protect their local culture especially as it relates to the preservation of their environment and their national park. 5. Conclusion of the chapter This chapter presents relates studies on sustainability, local communities, as well as challenges and opportunities for local communities. In general, sustainability refers to the viability of a resource for future use and support by communities and individuals using it. In relation to national parks, these are usually areas which have been declared as nationally protected landscapes. Local and indigenous communities are often living in and around these parks and they are the communities mostly affected by developments and tourist activities in these parks. Opportunities for these communities include economic opportunities which can help support their families. However, these communities are also at risk for the loss of their culture and their identity, amidst the influx and entry of tourists into the parks. In general however, with sufficient management opportunities for these parks, it is possible for these parks to provide more benefits for local communities. However, the primary objectives for tourist activities, must still focus on the preservation of these national parks. References Aref, F. (2011). Sense of Community and Participation for Tourism Development. Life Science Journal, 8(1), p. 20 Hampton, M. P., and Jeyacheya, J. (2014). Dive tourism, communities and small islands: lessons from Malaysia and Indonesia [online]. Available at: http://kar.kent.ac.uk/41740/1/Dive%20tourism%20Hampton%20%26%20Jeyacheya%20NVU%20Hanoi.pdf [Accessed 26 November 2014]. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (2014). Protected Areas Categories System [online]. Available at: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/gpap_home/gpap_quality/gpap_pacategories/ [Accessed 28 November 2014]. Lisse, J. (2014). What Is the Meaning of Sustainable Tourism? [online]. Available at: http://traveltips.usatoday.com/meaning-sustainable-tourism-2297.html [Accessed 28 November 2014]. McAreavey, R., and McDonagh, J. (2011). Sustainable rural tourism: lessons for rural development. Sociologia ruralis, 51(2), pp. 175-194. Mijele, D., Obanda, V., Omondi, P., Soriguer, R. C., Gakuya, F., Otiende, M., and Alasaad, S. (2013). Spatio-temporal distribution of injured elephants in Masai Mara and the putative negative and positive roles of the local community. PloS one, 8(7), e71179. Moric, I. (2013). The role and challenges of rural tourism development in transition countries: Montenegro experiences. Development, pp. 84, 95. Plummer, R. and Baird, J. (2013). 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