Impact of Climate Change on Tourism - Coursework Example

Impact of Climate Change on Tourism Introduction This paper will explore the impact of climate change on tourism, after a critical examination of the various definitions of tourism and climate change, as offered by various individuals and/or agencies, in addition to the various theoretical explanations of climate change. Additionally, this paper will also examine the historical background of global tourism, its present state amid the prevailing situations, as well as its future state, given the massive influences of climate change on the industry. Tourism Tourism has increasingly become a global phenomenon today, with many people travelling to destinations beyond their usual environments, both locally and internationally for holidays; tourism has generally been conceptualized as the travel for pleasure or business purposes, often for a limited duration. According to the World Tourism Organization, anyone who journeys beyond his or her usual environment and stays there for less than one consecutive year for leisure, business, or any other purpose fits the definition of a tourist. This definition highlights the reason, destination, as well as period aspects of tourism; in that case, there should be a movement of people to locations outside their locales, for leisure or business, and not for more than one year. The League of Nations in 1936 considered anyone who travels overseas for a minimum of 24 hours to be a tourist while its successor (the United Nations) revised this definition in 1945, to limit the maximum duration of stay for someone to be considered a tourist to only 6 months. This definition also highlights the aspect of time, both the minimum and maximum duration of stay, and the destination of travel, abroad, as the crucial determinants of a tourist. Additionally, the Tourism Society of England defined tourism in 1976 as the temporary, short-term travel of people to places beyond where they usually live and work and the engagement in numerous activities while in those destinations, for all purposes. This definition highlights the aspect of temporariness and destination of travel, thereby emphasizing that the travel has to last for a brief duration, and it has to be destined to an unfamiliar place outside the usual environment. Later in 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism considered tourism in the context of specific favoured activities that are undertaken outside the usual surroundings at home; in this respect, this destination provides a slightly different dimension of tourism as participation or engagement in one’s favourite activities beyond their usual surroundings. Quite recently, at the onset of the 21st century in 1994, the United Nations classified tourism into three broad categories namely domestic, inbound, as well as outbound tourism; domestic tourism entails residents traveling within their country, inbound tourism entails non-resident tourists travelling in a given country, and outbound tourism entails residents traveling in another country. This categorization clearly distinguishes tourism as a multi-faceted phenomenon that can be viewed in three dimensions rather than in one dimension, thereby giving forth three different kinds of tourists. Overall, a number of points of concurrence can be drawn from all the definitions provided above, thereby leading to the general theory and conceptualization of tourism. In that respect, all the definitions highlighted generally conceptualize tourism as a form of travel, for either pleasure or business, outside one’s usual surroundings, for a limited duration of time, and a tourist as anyone who engages in this sort of travel. Climate Change Over the years, especially at the turn of the 20th century, “climate change” has been a buzz word all over the world, leading to a heightened awareness and global collective efforts aimed at ensuring preservation of the natural environment. Climate change is the gradual shift in the manner in which weather patterns are distributed, not only in terms of average weather conditions, but also in terms of the distribution of weather around the average conditions over a long period of time (NOAA 2007, p.1). According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), climate change is “a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere, and that is in addition to natural climate variability over comparable time periods (Roger 2004, p.31).” In this respect, climate change is any shift in climate that can partially be associated with the direct or indirect influence of human activities that normally result to significant changes in the balance of the atmosphere, in addition to the natural differences observed over long periods. This definition highlights one of the most significant aspects of climate change, that is, it can be attributable to both natural and man-made causes, which contribute to the alteration of the atmospheric equilibrium thereby leading to a fatal imbalance that eventually triggers a change in the climate after a long duration of time. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change broadly as “any change in climate over time whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity (Roger 2004, p.31).” This implies that climate change is the change in the state of climate that can be measured in terms of the shifts in the averages as well as the variables of its constituent components over an extended period stretching for decades and over. The IPCC’s broad definition takes into account any form of change in climate over time, be it due to natural causes or man-made causes, unlike the narrow UNFCCC definition, which specifically attributes climate change to the direct and indirect influence of human activities, which eventually trigger changes in the natural composition of the atmosphere. Overall, both the IPCC and the UNFCCC definitions highlight that climate change does occur as a result of alterations in the natural balance of the atmosphere, and over a long period of time, usually more than decades. Additionally, despite that the two definitions are extensively variable in scope, they both highlight the aspect of attribution and detection in their views, that is, climate change is a function of both natural and man-made influences, which continually contribute to the gradual imbalance in the natural composition of the global atmosphere respectively. Theories on Climate Change Numerous theories of climate change have emerged over the years, but the most common and significant of them all is the Anthropogenic Global Warming (AGW) theory, which contends that the human emissions of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide, methane, as well as nitrous oxide, is to be blamed for the fatal rise in global temperatures (Bast 2010, p.6). According to this theory, the increased emission of greenhouse gases leads to the enhanced greenhouse effect whereby reflected sunlight energy is excessively trapped by the gases in the lower atmosphere thereby leading to unnecessary warming up of the earth’s atmosphere. Human activities such as the exploitation of fossil fuels for domestic as well as industrial energy, as well as the continued deforestation have been attributed to the increase in CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere, thereby yielding the enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming respectively. The second theory of climate change is known as the bio-thermostat theory, which holds that negative feedbacks from biological as well as chemical processes either partially or fully compensate for the potential imbalances created by the rising CO2 concentrations (Bast 2010, p.8). According to this theory, therefore, these processes function as a global bio-thermostat thereby contributing to the maintenance of equilibrium in the global balance of temperatures; there are several feedbacks including carbon sequestration, carbonyl sulfide, diffuse light, dimethyl sulfide, as well as other aerosols. The third theory of climate change is cloud formation and albedo, which theorizes that shifts in the formation and albedo of clouds create negative feedbacks, which offset nearly all or most of the warming effect of increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere (Bast 2010, p.12). Unlike the AGW theory, which is largely based on computer models, the core of this theory derives from a series of observational data reported by a series of researchers. For instance, a 1999 finding by a NASA scientist named Yogesh Sud and his colleagues showed that shifts in the cloud coverage in the tropics play the role of a natural thermostat to maintain balance in the sea surface temperature. The fourth theory of climate change, human forcing besides greenhouse gases, argues that mankind’s transformation of the earth’s surface through deforestation, irrigation of deserts, as well as through the establishment of cities, rather than greenhouse emissions is largely responsible for climate change (Bast 2010, p.14). This theory highlights that in as much as natural causes of climate change are equally important, they do not occur singly, thus highlighting a diverse range of first-order climate forcings besides CO2, which are also responsible for climate change. The fifth theory on climate change, ocean currents, contends that the differences in the global temperatures that has been recorded over the past one and a half centuries and particularly within the past three decades is attributable to the slow-down of the ocean’s Thermohaline Circulation (THC (Bast 2010, p.17). Unlike the ocean current theory, the sixth theory of climate change, planetary motion, contends that most if not all of the warming of the latter part of the 20th century is directly attributable to the natural gravitational as well as the magnetic oscillations of the solar system, which are prompted by the movement of the planet through space (Bast 2010, p.20). In that respect, these gravitational and magnetic oscillations of the solar system regulate solar variations as well as all other extraterrestrial influences of earth, thereby prompting climate change. The last theory of climate change is known as solar variability, which claims that most of, if not all, of the warming in the late 20th century as well as in the 21st century is as a result of solar variability rather than man-made greenhouse gas effect (Bast 2010, p.23). According to the proponents of this theory, variations in the brightness of the sun arise due to sunspots, which vary in frequency in certain cycles that eventually alters the level of electromagnetic radiation reaching the earth’s atmosphere thereby influencing climate respectively. Impacts of climate change Climate change is one of the greatest challenges of tourism (UNWTO 2011, p.1), and generally, climate change has four major implications for the tourism industry, ranging from natural, external, to man-made impacts. Firstly, a direct impact of climate change on tourism is in terms of adverse weather phenomenon such as floods, storms, fires, drought, glacial lake overflows, which result to massive destruction, in addition to the disappearance of beaches. The second implication is the indirect long term impact that is prompted by the alteration of the natural environment of tourist destinations thereby reducing its potential appeal to visitors; for instance, polluted waters, receding forests, as well as reducing biodiversity, melting snow caps and retreating glaziers are potential threats to the sustainability of tourism (XOLA 2009, p.6). Thirdly, climate change also leads to lifestyle changes, which later influence the orientation of tourism flows in both winter and summer seasons, thereby greatly impacting on annual tourism earnings in global tourist destinations. Additionally, climate change also results to the induced impacts on tourism, since it instigates response both from individuals and public policy; the various efforts aimed at alleviating the effects of climate change often yields various implications for the tourism industry in terms of compliance measures such as the requirements for new energy-efficient technologies (Victor, Kennel & Ramanathan 2012, p.112). Precisely, climate usually is a key determinant of both the length as well as the quality of the tourism season; besides that, climate often plays a significant role in determining the destination of a tourist and the overall tourists’ spending. Generally, tourism is a major benefactor of the natural environment, and yet the vastness of environmental resources that are crucial tourist attractions including snow conditions, wildlife as well as biodiversity, in addition to water levels and quality largely depend on the climatic conditions. Mountain regions with their snow cover as well as pristine mountain landscapes are crucial tourist attractions, yet the sensitive nature of the mountain environment often renders it extremely vulnerable to climate change. This implies that with the gradual climate change, the natural environment gets distorted gradually thereby harming the tourism industry; for instance, the rising water levels and melting snow caps are threats to the continuity of tourism since soon many tourist attractions such as sandy beaches, coastlines, as well as snow will disappear. Climate change has far greater implications for the snow-based sports tourism industry; for instance, the multi-billion euro winter sports industry is has been impacted greatly by the global climate change since it largely depends on the availability of plenty naturally snow as well as the accompanying climatic conditions that are necessary for the formation of snow (Amelung & Moreno 2009, p.2). Winter sports are a major contributor to the economies of mountain and alpine communities in Europe; for instance, some of the leading beneficiaries of the winter sports tourism industry include France, Austria, as well as Switzerland, which implies that revenues from this type of tourism are heavily impacted by climate change. Additionally, climate change further transforms the environmental conditions, leading to adverse environments that are prone to calamities such as infectious diseases, bushfires, vector-borne diseases, as well as critical weather events such as cyclones, typhoons, and sand storms, thereby deterring tourists from visiting their destinations of choice. The implication of this is that tourists tend to shun visiting those places that are bound to experience such adverse eventualities due to security reasons, thereby leading to a sharp decline in the gross tourism earnings respectively. For instance, a large number of tourists from Northern Europe, nearly 100 million per annum, are often attracted to destinations in the Mediterranean coast in search of summer conditions, spending an average of 100 billion euros per year. In that respect, climate change largely influences these tourist flows thereby harming those destinations in terms of reduced arrivals, which then translates to reduced gross tourist earnings per year. The history of tourism The phenomenon of tourism is as old as humanity itself since people have always travelled or moved from one place to another over the years; for instance, seminal examples of the tourism phenomenon can be found in Marco Polo’s 13th century narrative. The 18th century “grand tour” of the British aristocracy to Europe, as well as the David Livingstone’s journey’s through the African continent in the 19th century (Gyr, 2010). Thomas Cook, commonly regarded the father of inclusive tours, used a chattered train to export tourists from Loughborough to Leicester in 1914, though, tourism primarily remained a domestic activity in Europe until 1950s. After WWII, tourism experienced a massive growth due to a number of several positive factors such as increasing employment and disposable incomes, plenty of leisure time, as well as the shift in socio-cultural perceptions of work and leisure. There was a huge demand for foreign travel and holidays, which later lead to the emergence of specialist tour and travel operators who provided holidays inclusive of transport, accommodation, among other related services at a single price. The implication of this commodification of tourism was the expansion of the industry beyond local destinations and the increased participation of people in tours and travels since they were no longer considered a reserve of the affluent. Global tourism today Tourism has undoubtedly emerged to be a significant industry in many countries across the world due to a rapid growth and diversification over the years, thereby playing a crucial role in development of the world’s leading economies (Delener, 2010). There has been an increase in the number of potential tourist destinations, which has transformed the entire sector into a key player in global socio-economic progress. The industry has also experienced great diversification with the introduction of indoor tourist spectacles such as museums, which compete for the rare leisure hours in response to the limited free times today. However, economic realities in the recent past have greatly contributed to the fragile consumer confidence, which in turn determines travel decisions of individuals across the world, thereby affecting the entire tourism industry’s performance. The continued growth of tourist frustration due to high traveling costs and poor service standards across certain areas in the industry are huge deterrents to travel thereby resulting to losses accordingly. The future of global tourism Given that climate and the natural conditions of the environment are major factors that many people consider in determining their tourism destinations, it is projected that in the near future, climate change will most certainly impose a great influence on the choice of destinations and the tourism spending in general (Viner & Agnew1999, p.3). Presently, a vast majority of the conventional tourist attractions in the natural environments such as snow-and glazier-capped mountains, in addition to coastal beaches, and forests are gradually disappearing due to the climate change. The implication, therefore, is that those areas that will endure the negative impacts of climate change are more likely to retain and receive more tourists than those that will be adversely affected by the climate change. Product diversification is promising to be a critical boost in the tourism industry since it helps prolong the tourism season while reducing vulnerability of total failure in case of adverse performance in one area of tourism such as the winter sports tourism industry. Conclusion This paper highlighted the numerous definitions of tourism, and climate change as offered by various agents, in addition to the seven theories of climate change, leading into the discussion of climate change on the global tourism industry. Overall, climate change is one of the greatest challenges of tourism, and has four major implications, ranging from natural, external, to man-made impacts; climate change directly affects tourism in terms of adverse weather phenomenon such as floods, storms, fires, drought, glacial lake overflows, which result to massive destruction. Climate change’s indirect long term impact on tourism is prompted by the alteration of the natural environment of tourist destinations, which reduces its potential appeal to visitors; besides that, climate change also leads to lifestyle changes, which later influence the orientation of tourism flows in both winter and summer seasons. The induced impacts of climate change on tourism is in terms of the various efforts aimed at alleviating the effects of climate change, which yields the various implications for the tourism industry including compliance measures such as the requirements for new energy-efficient technologies. References Viner, D., & Agnew, M. (1999). Climate Change and Its Impacts on Tourism. Report Prepared for WWF-UK. Print. Available at: http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/tourism_and_cc_full.pdf Amelung, B., & Moreno, A. (2009). Impacts of climate change in tourism in Europe. PESETA-Tourism study: JRC Scientific & technical report. Print. NOAA. (2007). Climate Change: What is climate change? Available at: http://www.unep.org/pdf/UNEP_Profile/Climate_change.pdf XOLA. (2009). Exploring the effects of climate change and sustainable development in the adventure tourism industry. Available at: http://www.xolaconsulting.com/2009-xola-climate-change-adventure-tourism.pdf UNWTO. (2011). Tourism and Climate Change. Available at: http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/climatechange.pdf Bast, J. (2010). Seven theories of climate change. Available at: http://scienceandpublicpolicy.org/images/stories/papers/reprint/seven_theories.pdf Delener, N. (2010). Current trends in the global tourism industry: Evidence from the United States. Available at: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0034-76122010000500006&script=sci_arttext Gyr, U. (2010). The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path to Modernity. Available at: http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism Roger, Pielke A. (2004). What is climate change? Issues in Science and Technology, 20(4), 31-34. Victor, D. G., Kennel, C. F., & Ramanathan, V. (2012). The climate threat we can beat: What it is and how to deal with it.Foreign Affairs, 91(3), 112-121.  Read More