The Emergence of the Dark or Grief Tourism Phenomenon - Essay Example

The emergence of the dark or grief tourism phenomenon Introduction and emergence of ‘dark tourism’ The word ‘tourism’ hitherto has always been a pleasant connotation, something to look forward to, something exciting and relaxing. With the changes in the structure of the society, more purchasing power in the hands of the people, rightly associated with more stress, tourism worldwide has grown beyond proportions. It is now declared as an industry like any other industry. A desire for novelty and difference, the curiosity to remove the myths about exotic places gives tourism a boost. Tourism reflects economic disparities, and can even cause cultural conflicts. Tourism ranges from Jerusalem to Bangkok and shapes politics, creates identities, and manufactures history. Today we hear of spiritual tourism, health tourism, casino tourism, sex tourism, adventure tourism and heritage tourism. If this was not enough today we have what is labeled the ‘dark’ or the ‘grief’ tourism. Post modernism, tourism is more specialized and caters to tourists with all sorts of tastes. What exactly is the dark tourism and how does it affect the society and culture of the region? Uttering the word ‘tourism’ gives one a feeling of excitement and pleasure. The phrase dark tourism was coined in 1997 (MacMillan 2002) to describe the phenomenon of people traveling to the scene or place of disaster to see for themselves the place where it happened. There was massive outpouring of public grief in the months following the death of Princess Diana in August 1997. People’s extravagant display of public sorrow for individuals they have never met led to the movement being called dark tourism. The words grief tourism and grief tourists were subsequently associated with visitors to the site in New York where the Twin Towers were demolished on 11th September 2001. It was in 2002 that the terms grief tourism and grief tourists first began to emerge as people flocked to Soham in Cambridgeshire following the deaths of two young schoolgirls, Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman, who were tragically murdered by the caretaker of their local school. Governments and other local authorities are faced with dilemmas regarding representation of sites associated with death and disaster in the context of tourism visits. Today a large number of sites associated with war, genocide, assassination and other tragic events have become significant tourist destinations. This phenomenon is called the dark tourism (John Lennon & Malcom Foley, November 2000). Places associated with death and catastrophe range from famous assassination sites such as Kennedy’s at Dallas to concentration camps and Holocaust memorials. Dark tourism’ is the act of travel and visitation to sites, attractions and exhibitions which have death, suffering or the seemingly macabre as a main theme. (Stone P.R 2005). Over the past few years dark tourism has become a distinct area of research as a lot of deliberations are taking place on its merits and demerits. It is still in the nascent stage and questions remain unanswered about both the production and consumption of dark tourism. What is the role and influence of the contemporary society upon dark tourism consumption? Dark tourism also raises questions about the appropriate political and managerial responses to the range of experiences perceived by the visitors, local residents, victims and their relatives. How has the concept of tourism changed post-modernism? To understand this we first need to examine what exactly is post-modernism. Post-modernism and ‘dark tourism’ Post-modernism is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature and culture, which are generally characterized as emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding modernism. (Wikipedia). Postmodern culture began to rise in 1920s but it is with the end of the Second World War that post-modernist attitudes begin to emerge. In the larger sense, postmodernism means the trend of thought in the late 20th century. Postmodernism gave rise to the concept that it was merely individual perception and group construction that people would rely upon. These thoughts affected every field and tourism was no exception. Post-modernism, dark tourism grew by leaps and bounds. People were no more satisfied reading and listening and desired first hand experience. They wanted to be a part of the grief that had befallen a particular site or location. They wanted to see and feel the location where they had lost a dear one. Dark tourism was the engine that spurred the growth of tourism as an industry. It started in an organized form soon after the First World War when the American veteran wanted to visit Europe, where they had fought. The Tourism Society and ‘dark tourism’ Tourism in the 20th century grew into the world’s largest industry. It is undoubtedly a large source of foreign exchange, employment and income. Tourism is about people; it is social phenomenon. Tourism being a high foreign exchange earner, all attention, and resources are diverted to this industry. Tourism development has led to many conflicts around the world. Even though the government is supposed to control the industry, it has been able to do little to keep the culture and society from being affected. The society influences tourism and is affected by tourism. Immediately after the Second World War tourism received a great impetus. Even though the terminology did not exist then, but this travel was in reality dark tourism. The term is not widely used even today although a lot of travel does take place in what can be termed as dark tourism. If the local sightseeing brochures of any country are looked into, the major sightseeing places covered include forts (from war was fought), the memorials (victims of war), tombs (of martyrs or heroes), the birth place or the disaster locations. All these ultimately amount to what today is known as dark tourism. Dark tourism is an old concept in a new world Tourism (Stone 2005). Essentially the dark tourism concept examines the attraction of death, disaster, and atrocity, and its associated suffering through a plethora of dark tourist sites and exhibitions. A shroud of darkness binds all disaster sites together. They reflect the negative human experience, which could range from crime, war, death, murder, atrocity, and disaster. They also share an additional social phenomenon: tourism. Dark tourism sites are sought after destinations. Everything is now feasible as а leisure activity. As а consequence, all forms of leisure have become equal and all events and sites have become potential tourism destination. Two hundred years ago, cemeteries were sacred, yet the National Federation of Cemetery Friends in Britain promotes them as out dооr museums (Rоjek 1993). Tourism consumption is socially and culturally framed; dark tourism is also influenced by the culture of the society. There is a growing demand and this industry needs to be organized. When Pan Am Flight 103 crashed at Lockerbie Scotland in 1988, tourism impacts were immediate. Not all sites evolve as dark tourist spots. It depends a lot on the cultural values. The memorializing sites seen today have all been shaped by political, social and/or economic factors, sometimes over a number of decades. The impacts of dark tourism becomes pronounced when the inflow of visitors to such sites is high. Dark tourism affects various sectors like the social, cultural, political and the environmental. The impacts can be either positive or negative. We shall consider the political, social, and cultural impacts of dark tourism. Dark Tourism impacts on Political sector The most common purpose to sanctify the memorial or the disaster site is to honour the martyrs or the heroes, or the leaders and the community loss. To be able to handle the inflow of people to such sites the local elected officials or the political parties, in association with the local authorities have to arrange for its growth and development. Vested political interests can challenge the sanctity of the purpose. It has also been observed that even though the local authorities portray it as a reason to build a memorial, it is not always so. At the sanctification of Abraham Lincoln, Bodnar explains, “…the shaping of a past worthy of public commemoration in the present is contested and involves a struggle for supremacy between advocates of various political ideas and sentiments.” (Stephanie Marie Yuill). The changing political climate in Washington, D.C. directly influenced the commemoration of the Holocaust in the capital. As Linenthal relates, “The motivation to build a Holocaust memorial was linked with a clear message of the administration’s support for the State of Israel”. The political conflicts at disaster sites may be eased when the different political parties share a common goal – the development of the town or location. This boosts the local economy and provides employment. On the other hand the ruling party may try to gain supremacy if they had been instrumental in allowing visitors to the site. This could increase the political tension. When a lot of people start visiting a particular site it requires regulations and control. The opposition could try to ensure that the ruling party is not successful in its efforts to implement control. War is good business for the local authorities. It immediately gives boost to the local economy. True dark tourism does not create war but the consequences for the local community are no less devastating - as can be seen in Iraq. The enshrinement of disaster and tragedy is shaped by the prevailing cultural values. Violence and tragedy are widespread in society; however, not all sites and events are memorialized. Political factors influence the site management and should be viewed from all angles. There are instances when the local authorities want to preserve the place, monument or any other structure associated with the tragedy. Lennon and Foley illustrate this by discussing how Germany has sought to preserve the places associated with Hitler so that it teaches the darker aspects of history. They have also considered the Channel Islands, an area with a strong economic focus on tourism, where the contentious past of the Nazi occupation is commemorated. Today, numerous sites of death and disaster attract millions of visitors from all round the world: Аuschwitz-Birkenаu, Аnne Frаnk’s Hоuse, Grаcelаnd, Оklаhоmа City, Gettysburg, Vimy Ridge, the Sоmme, Аrlingtоn Nаtiоnаl Cemetery. The list grows each year as exhibited by the recent creation of an apartheid museum in Jоhаnnesburg, Sоuth Аfricа. Dark Tourism impacts on Social sector The impact on the social sector includes impact on the environment, economy and the behavior pattern. When the inflow of visitors to disaster sites increase it brings with it diverse values which affects the communities involved. This influences the local behaviour and the family life. They start adopting tourist behaviour, learn their language and in short try to please them in any way. To fulfill the needs of the tourists, to make a quick buck, all scarce commodities are diverted to them. The local society, from the police authorities to small vendors all undergo a change to cater to the tourists. Not merely the needs, even the security of local people becomes secondary. On the positive side, the interaction between the hosts and the tourists can give rise to new business oppurtunities for the local communities, but then one of the negative effects of such association is that the locals have to tolerate the restrictions imposed upon them. Their individuality too is challenged. The positive effect of dark tourism on the social structure is that traditional costumes, dances and ceremonies are renewed to exhibit to the tourists. Then again, with the local economy being positively affected, it causes more of anti-social activities like illicit drug use, crimes, and petty thefts. On the other hand, for the residents at the dark tourism sites who have undergone such traumatic events, forgetting may be an instinctual reaction. They would like to be left alone to overcome the grief. The way the media creates hype the reaction of the tourists is instant. In 1990, a year after the overthrow of communism in Romania, the country saw a 67% increase in tourism. The desire to forget the past conflicts with the desire to maximize the economic benefits of tourism. Sites of death and disaster do pull people in order to learn and to remember. It is believed that the possible reasons why tourists visit these attractions are for remembrance, education or entertainment. Such situations are fraught with problems and disturb the government and other agencies that are already hard pressed to depict and manage the tragedy. The massive traffic to such sites presents moral and ethical dilemmas to the local authorities. A lot of commercial development takes place in the wake of sudden inflow of people and this invariably leads to exploitation. The future of Scottish Tourism is focussed on dark tourism. Interest in graveyards, gruesome ghost tours, and battlefields are being targeted in an effort to attract more visitors. Thousands come to Scotland to trace their family history. Scotland has a rich and evocative history according to Professor John Lennon (2004), but he says, ‘But tourism agencies have to walk a tightrope in terms of taste. Some dark tourism is more sinister, such as the interest in going to see Auschwitz, Lockerbie, or Ground Zero.’ It is obvious that the industry concentrates on something new and exciting to keep the industry alive. It does not take into account the psychological and social impact it would have on the people. The impact of dark tourism on society can also be viewed from the educational viewpoint that individuals turn to when visiting the sites of death or disaster. People travel to gather knowledge and perhaps to gain educational opportunities. The dark tourism sites continue to promote their educational mission. Most notable is the Smithsonian Institute, the educational arm of Washington D.C.’s museums, which offered а number of educational tours for the 2002-2003 seasons. These ranged from The Civil War at Chаncellоrville to the Philаdelphiа Cаmpаign and Vаlley Fоrge. Such benefits which help to educate and keep memories alive. It is believed that learning from the past, the future generations would be able to live better lives. Such education aids in providing a secure tomorrow. As we have seen the impacts can be both positive and negative just as there are two to a coin. Dark Tourism impacts on Culture sector Cultural exchange takes place between the residents and the tourist. This could positively or adversely affect the local people. At times it may amount to cultural imposition. The local culture is affected largely when people from different lifestyles invade it. It could also give them an exposure to the world of which they had no idea. The local people may try to adopt the new culture or influence the visitors with their own. In dark tourism, when they are still under grief they cannot be easily influenced by others but with the lapse of time, disaster sites become just another tourist destination. It is then that the residents rise above the grief and start getting affected by the culture of the tourists. Local ethnic culture is altered to fit in to the needs of the tourists. For the ease of the tourists lodges and hotels come up close to the disaster site which affects the local community. Every small activity is commercialized. Commemoration leads to public display of grief and it has become more of a pastime. When the Princess Diana Memorial Fountain was opened in Hyde Park it was never envisaged that visitors would wash their dogs or paddle in it. It was expected that “people would picnic near the memorial, walk by and run their hands through the water, think about their lives, think about Diana." (Angelina 2005). It is also argued that commemoration not just teaches, it also helps to keep the cultural values alive. Cultural values dominate history, heritage, and the process of creating memorials. In order to travel light, the tourists use a lot of non-biodegradable use and throw material, which pollutes the surroundings. This toxic waste has to be absorbed by the local community. It is a cultural theft as people go to the extent of selling their cultural artifacts for a meager sum. Besides, all the traders offer the same goods at more or less the same price. The negative side of making money is that such competition gives rise to differences between them and can even lead to quarrels. For each of them this becomes livelihood and naturally, the better salesperson clinches the sales. Like any tourism, dark tourism is also governed by the season. Hence, during lean season, those that had become dependant on the inflow of tourists, find it hard to make both ends meet. Residents close to the site of the tragedy find it difficult to cope with and recover from the disaster. Intrusion only blocks the process. The local society wants to be left alone to cope with grief and does not desire intruders. The people of Soham for example pleaded to end the grief tourism. Visitors from all over Britain started flocking to sign the books of condolence and light candles. It became more of a holiday destination when people started making day trips to this place. A couple was seen sitting in deckchairs in the churchyard of St Andrews eating fish and chips (Sean ONeill 2002). This expression of sympathy gradually becomes a pain for the local people; it is no more with a feeling of sorrow but a tourist destination. Traffic situation goes out of control; travel agents start organizing conducted day trips and wooing people with attractions. It becomes a money making effort for many and causes hardships for the locals. While it does create temporary employment and business oppurtunities for a handful, the overall impact on the society is not desirable. Small businesses mushroom overnight to cater to the wants of the visitors. The ecology is disturbed; desires in the local people rises who are lured by the attractions offered by the visitors. The sanctity of the place is disturbed. In fact the moment the word ‘tourism’ is attached to any activity, it is concerned with preserving itself as an industry and not with the well being of the community. In the name of grief tourism communities that are home to crimes reap economic benefits. The cultural impact on the host community is tremendous. They lose privacy altogether. Their lifestyle is controlled by the tourist season which largely depends upon the season. Youth and even children are drawn into earning livelihood instead of spending their prime time in educating themselves. The culture, the natural resources and at many places even their bodies are on sale. Exploitation takes place at all levels. Conclusion Ground Zero (the location of the Twin Towers) is the most popular tourism attractions in the New York City. The tour guide charges $15 per head to point out where the fire-fighters raised the flag. Within months, the site was flushed with hawkers having souvenirs on sale ranging from Ground Zero NYC T-shirts and baseball caps to Day of Terror commemorative books and DVD montages of the disaster. Does this allow visitors to pay their respects or do people capitalize on the tragedy? When tourists visit Taj Mahal or the Pyramids it is not called dark tourism, then why for the Twin Towers? This means that with time memories of death and disaster is banished from the mind and it ceases to be a dark spot. In this case even Ground Zero, over a period of time would cease to be a part of ‘grief tourism’. Or perhaps disasters like these would continue to carry the label of grief tourism because the phrase has come into existence only with recent events. The impacts of death and disaster have long lasting impacts not just on the individuals involved but also on the family members. This results in mixed feelings. Globally various Tourist Boards have been debating on the moral validity of disaster tourism. Dark tourism is not a new phenomenon. Visiting battlefields or the cells where prisoners were held is common in every country that has experienced war. In Finland the murder tourism is concentrated around the Bodom-lake and in Sweden the real target for these tourists is the Knutby village. The violent death of the British Archbishop of Canterbury in the towns cathedral in the twelfth century attracted throngs of people to the site. It could have been simple curiosity or perhaps these people would be named pilgrims. The history of disaster tourism is as old as the history of man. There may be exploitation, commercialization, vested political interests, culture disintegration, societal pressures, and rejection. Whatever the implications, whatever the arguments, dark tourism is here to stay. Reference: Malcolm F, Lennon J. (2000) Dark Tourism – the attraction of death and disaster. URL: < http://www.moffatcentre.com/dark.htm> accessed 28 Oct 2005. MacMillan Publishers Ltd (2002). Word of the Week Archive, URL:< http://www.macmillandictionary.com/New-Words/040821-grief-tourist.htm> accessed 28 Oct 2005 ONeill Sean, (2002), Soham pleads with trippers to stay away, URL:< http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/08/26/nfen26.xml&sSheet=/portal/2002/08/26/ixport.html> accessed 28 Oct 2005 Angelina (2005), TROUBLED WATERS: Investigating a truly British fiasco of Dianas fountain, URL:< http://www.royalarchive.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=669&Itemid=2> accessed 28 Oct 2005 Stone P.R (2005), URL: accessed 28 Oct 2005 Rоjek, Chris аnd Jоhn Urry, eds. Tоuring Cultures: Trаnsfоrmаtiоns оf Trаvel аnd Theоry. Lоndоn: Rоutledge, 1997 (214 pp.). The future of Scottish tourism, URL:< http://www.unlv.edu/centers/gaming/2004/08/future-of-scottish-tourism-what-do.html> accessed 29 Oct 2005 Yuill Stephanie Marie (2003), Dark tourism:understanding visitor motivation at sites of death and disaster, URL:< https://txspace.tamu.edu/bitstream/1969/89/1/etd-tamu-2003C-RPTS-Yuill-1.pdf> accessed 29 Oct 2005 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism Read More