Functioning of Biotechnology - Essay Example

Biotechnology Assessment The purpose of this essay is to thoroughly discuss the principles as well as the advantages versus the moral issues of gene therapy and genetic engineering. Multiple aspects of biotechnology centered on the topic of gene therapy will be analyzed and elaborated on. Particularly, gene therapy innovations in cystic fibrosis will be examined. Additionally, aspects of genetic engineering such as “designer babies” and eugenics will be explored. In today’s world, a controversy of morality and medicine is becoming considerably more and more debated with the rise of increasingly complicated and life threatening illnesses and the biotechnology that can offer hope of a cure. Gene therapy is offering that hope to individuals with genetic disorders that in the past, ensured certain and untimely death and suffering. In the 1970’s, scientists began to grasp not only the relevance of the human genome but the possibilities of treating genetic disorders with “gene surgery”. The idea was to replace faulty genes with viable ones with aspirations of curing diseases. Originally, scientists took an approach which focused mainly on single genes. It was first assumed that this was not only the answer to many incurable diseases but possibly the best that science could do. The 1980’s ushered in new advancements which allowed them to look at not only treating single gene genetic disorders, but also treating acquired diseases with gene therapy. Between then and now, research and technology have advanced gene therapy to new and unimaginable medical heights. The term ’gene therapy’ is actually a relatively broad term and encompasses a myriad of different methods and procedures. The fundamental element of our genetic code is the bases (adenosine, thiamine, cytosine and guanine) which are formed in specific sequences to provide the blue prints for proteins (this is essentially what a gene is). As we know, most genetic disorders involve either non functional proteins, chromosomal additions and deletions as well as gene abnormalities. The goal of gene therapy is to place functional genetic material into a cell in order to correct the abnormality. It should be noted that though gene therapy has come a long way, there is still a lot to be accomplished, as many genetic disorders remain untreatable. One aspect of faulty genetics or genetic expression is genes that ‘turn on‘ or become activated at some point in a person‘s life span resulting in cancer or other diseases, “A common approach in gene therapy is to identify a malfunctioning gene and supply the patient with functioning copies of that gene (Mammen et al 2007)”. Furthermore, genes can be introduced into the patient’s cells to turn other genes on or to function as an immunosuppressant. In some cases, different genes can be turned on in order to block another gene from becoming active. The most frequent method of gene therapy in use today is that of inserting a normal gene into the patient’s genome (usually in a non specific location), in order to replace or correct a non functional gene or one that is faulty. A process known as “homologous recombination” may be used to trade a faulty gene for a new and functional one. Yet another method that is often used in known as “selective reverse mutation”. In this method, the gene which is not functioning properly is actually repaired. The process of inserting a new and functional gene into a patient receiving gene therapy is a bit more complicated than it sounds. The use of a vector is required, usually a virus, to carry human DNA into “target cells” of the patient. It should be noted that the tem “vector” implies a mode or a vessel in which to transport material. Interestingly enough, viruses have long been a threat to human wellness due to their ability to encapsulate and thus implant their own DNA into human host DNA, later resulting in diseases such as cancer. At this point in time, the evolutionary process has allowed viruses to coexist on some levels, symbiotically with humans (Mammen et al 2007). Once the patient’s target cells or affected tissue receives the new genetic material post implantation, it can be used by the cells as a template for producing duplicate copies of the working gene. In some cases, the new gene is taken up by the chromosomes, in other cases it is not. In other words, some forms of gene therapy may transport the new genetic material directly into the host chromosome in the loci of the gene which was malfunctioning. Diagram below illustrates vector use in gene therapy: (FDA 2000) The disease known as cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects the exocrine system. It also directly affects the patient’s ability to properly secrete and produce sweat and mucus. It is also detrimental to the pancreas and lungs. In the case of cystic fibrosis, the gene linked to the disease itself is known as CFTR and is located on chromosome 7, “ The protein for which CFTR is the genetic code is called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator(The Doctor’s Guide 1995)”. Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal; recessive trait and is therefore only developed in individuals who have both a mother and father who are carriers for the mutation. On a cellular level, the way that cystic fibrosis adversely affects individuals is through a mutation in ion channels. The normal allele encodes for normal ionic movement which allows the regular passage of water and sodium through the cellular membranes. Individuals with the mutant allele resulting in cystic fibrosis, do not posses the proper regulation of sodium and water from inside the cell into the space outside the cell (extra cellular fluid). The result is a dehydrating affect which interferes with normal organ function leading to organ damage (Boyd 2008). The current gene therapy in use for Cystic Fibrosis is one that delivers the new DNA to the affected tissue (the lungs) through the use of an inhaler. The patient need only inhale the vapor to allow the normal copies of the gene which codes for Cystic Fibrosis, to begin replicating within the lungs thereby slowing or reversing the onset of the disease. Among other degenerative symptoms, Cystic Fibrosis causes a degeneration of the lungs known as chronic lung disease. The aspect of gene therapy being used to teat Cystic Fibrosis is quite significant as nearly 7,000 individuals in the UK alone suffer from the disease. As many as 1 out of 25 people are afflicted with it. Curing a disease like this would have astounding ramifications concerning the possibility of then curing a myriad of other diseases, cancer included. As of now, Cystic Fibrosis is not cured completely even with the advancements in gene therapy, but the future looks promising. As with any medical breakthrough, therapeutic gene implementation has undergone extensive clinical trials. Specifically in the area of Cystic Fibrosis, trials have included not only how the disease affects patients and how the symptoms can be treated, but how the disease itself can be reversed. As a rule, lung function parameters are most often used as an endpoint in the clinical studies of the disease (Brody 2007). The reversal of life threatening diseases like Cystic Fibrosis, cancer and hemophilia have become a possible reality through the introduction of therapeutic genes in the arena of gene therapy. Certainly, it is only fair to discuss the moral issues surrounding gene therapy when discussing its relevance to medicine. Like anything, there are benefits and also risks. In many (if not most) medical treatments, physicians must ask themselves ‘do the benefits outweigh the risks?’. The same can be said for the use of gene therapy. If one were to ask the friends and family members of a dying loved one this same question, considering the risks may be a future in “designer babies” or doctors playing God, the answer would remain yes, the benefits outweigh the risks if the treatment saves the individual in question. For these individuals who face the possibility of losing a relative to a genetic disorder, gene therapy is positively a benefit with few risks. Medicine and science are not immune to moral argument and even pressure. In fact, the topic of gene therapy and genetic engineering has been under intense scrutiny from a number of organizations and view points since its genesis. Many stand on the reason that it is not up to doctors and scientists to “play God”. The counter argument to this is that it is the responsibility of not only science but of each generation to improve the world as well as the possibility of living longer, for the next generation and for future generations. Further argument can draw a line between reversing or curing illness and ’designing’ the future generation in an attempt to create a specific breed of humans. This is often referred to as the idea of “designer babies” The definition of a designer baby is a baby whose traits and attributes have been selected eugenically. This is obviously an entirely different use of the biotechnology available to us today, than that of the Cystic Fibrosis patient who merely seeks to survive. Perhaps to the parents who desire all female offspring with brown hair and hazel eyes, genetic engineering is the answer with few draw backs, but the overall picture of this scenario yields very mixed outcomes. Adolph Hitler too sought a specific generation of individuals with certain characteristics, and therefore not only brought the world to a second World War but deprived the world of millions of innocent people simply because they did not fit his criteria for a specific generation. The common mode at this point in time for attaining a “designer baby” is through an embryo bank. These embryos are transgenic, meaning that they are fertilized in a lab setting having undergone in vitro techniques. An embryo bank allows prospective parents to select everything about their adopted baby including the personality of the biological parents. In most cases, couples who utilize embryo banks are unable to reproduce themselves. A common argument heard by those in the business of “designer babies” is that the concept is placing human life for sale. Once again, when a society embraces eugenics in small forms here and there, the end result is never positive. There slowly becomes no place for those with less than optimal attributes. This is a dangerous situation that can only get worse with time. In some cases however, parents seek desperately to avoid the pain of having a sick or unhealthy child. Genetic counseling can provide information to prospective parents that was never available in the past, such as if the parents are carriers for any genetic diseases. With this information, parents can then opt to have their own child or adopt a healthy child. Additionally, individuals who become pregnant and undergo amniocentesis, can learn whether their child is healthy or ill. This is often a determining factor of whether or not to terminate pregnancies. Other aspects of genetic engineering are subject to scrutiny and argument as well such as food and drug production. Many hybrids of fruit, vegetables and plant life have been achieved through the advancements in biotechnology. Multiple undesirable traits in crops can be eliminated this way therefore elevating profit margins for farmers. An example of this is cotton and soybean crops which have been specifically altered to minimize insect and weed invasion. Certainly, in agriculture, there is no predominantly necessary moral argument over whether it is morally correct to genetically alter corn for the improvement of taste and longevity. This does not mean that there are not some that do not argue that genetically altered corn will only lead to genetically altered babies. Animals which are raised for their meat or dairy products have not been approved for human consumption in parts of the world, “ Among food animals, only engineered fish are under active consideration by regulators. Other engineered plants, animals, and microbes are farther down the research pipeline but few are poised for introduction in the near future (Union of Concerned Scientists 2007)”. Though there has been extensive study in genetic engineering on animals, a multitude of scientists fear that transgenic animals will pose a threat to the environment. Particularly insects and aquatic life are projected to possibly become feral, “ engineered crops might contaminate the food supply with drugs, kill beneficial insects, or jeopardize valuable natural resources like Bt toxins. Engineered fish may substantially alter native ecosystems, perhaps even driving wild populations to extinction (Union of Concerned Scientists 2007)”. Certainly, by creating new species of animals, it is hard to know what type of unforeseen problems will be faced as well as the injustice to the animals undergoing the mutations. In terms of the pharmaceutical industry, genetic engineering has been increasingly productive. The mode in which biotechnology and genetic engineering has evolved to the pharmaceutical industry is through the use of animals as virtual labs for the production of pharmaceuticals. Once again, the argument here is on behalf of the voiceless animals that are being exploited. Animals are also being cloned to move the field of genetics one step closer to doing the same in humans. The idea behind cloning human DNA is longevity and extended life spans for the original DNA donor. In other words, if one is able to have themselves cloned, one could then utilize the organs and tissues from the clone to replace diseased or aging parts of themselves. For example, if one has a faulty set of kidneys, one could utilize the kidneys of their clone. Obviously, having a clone of one’s self would surely have a perfect tissue and blood match to any organs they would ever need. This is possibly the future of genetic engineering and biotechnology although it raises a large issue or morals and ethics. The concept of cloning raising the possibility of creating an entire breed of human beings that would essentially used for harvesting organs and tissue. Diagram below illustrates the cloning process into a plasmid: Cloning into a Plasmid (National Health Museum 1998) Cloning is so controversial and ethically questionable that several places in the U.S have outlawed it, “Michigan enacted laws in 1998 making human cloning a felony, setting penalties for cloning, and prohibiting state funds from being used for it. California, Louisiana, and Rhode Island also have such a ban, and other states have similar legislation pending (Public Sector Consultants Inc. 2002).” After the birth of Dolly the sheep, a clone from the first successful cloning project in 1997, the world of science has become acutely aware of the real possibilities now available. The world in general however, is now forced to decide where the line should be drawn in the arena of genetic engineering. It is one thing to perform gene therapy as a form of medical treatment and a life saving technique. It is entirely different however, to create life through cloning, and then to harvest it without considering how ethics apply to the new individual (the clone) just as they would apply to the original individual. In conclusion, it can be summarized that scinece has indeed made incredible and promising strides in biotechnology, but as the progress continues, the boundairies of morals and ethics become more blurred. Science should not only be a question of “how?” but also of “why?”. Just because we are capable of doing something does not always mean that it should be done. Cloning is possible, but at what cost? If cloning were to become prominent, the individuals raised as clones may be essentially assimilated to catle. This is a moral dilema that may only continue to haunt science until a line can be firmly drawn between what we are able to do and what we should ethically do. References: Blankenstein, Thomas, 1999, Gene Therapy, Principles and Applications, http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug25/articles34.htm Brody, Alan S. M.D., Harm A. W. M. Tiddens, M.D., Ph.D., 2007, Monitoring Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease in Clinical Trials, Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society, http://pats.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/4/297 1998, g into a Plasmid, National Health Museum, ttp://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/plasmid.php 2002, Designer Babies, What would you do for a Healthy baby? Bio- Medicine.com, http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Designer- babies---what-would-you-do-for-a-healthy-baby-3F-4287-1/ 2002, Genetic Cloning, Testing and Research, Public Sector Consultants Inc., http://www.michiganinbrief.org/edition07/Chapter5/Genetic.htm Boyd Group, 1999, Genetic Engineering; Animal Welfare and Ethics, http://www.boyd-group.demon.co.uk/genmod.htm 2005, Gene Therapy Can Help Improve Cystic Fibrosis, Doctor’s Guide, http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/ee7fa.htm 2008, Cystic Fibrosis, The University of Edinburgh, http://www.genetics.med.ed.ac.uk/cysfib/ 2008, The History of Gene Therapy, Net Industries, Gene Therapy - The History Of Gene Therapy 2005, What is the Gene Therapy for Cystic Fibrosis?, Health Cares Net, http://respiratory-lung.health-cares.net/cystic-fibrosis-gene-therapy.php Mammen, Biju, Ramakrishnan T, Sudhakar, Uma Vijayalakshmi, 2007, Principles of Gene Therapy, Department of Periodontics, Meenakshi Ammal Dental College and Hospital, http://www.ijdr.in/article.asp?issn=0970- 9290;year=2007;volume=18;issue=4;spage=196;epage=200;aulast=Mam men Union of Concerned Scientists,2007enetic Engineering, Food and Environment, http://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_environment/genetic_engineering/ 2000, Fundamentals of Gene Therapy, , FDA Office of Public Affairs, http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/gene.html Essay Plan I Outline Principles of Gene Therapy A. Apply to Cystic Fibrosis II Ethical and Moral Issues raised by Genetic engineering A. Process of Genetic Engineering B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering C. Ethics of Process Involved D. Gene Therapy as Applied to cloning, food and medicine Read More