Evolution of Computers - Essay Example

Evolution of Computers First Last Dr. TeacherFirst TeacherLast Number 15 May Evolution of Computers Introduction This manual gives an overview of the evolution of computers over time to the point at which they stand today. The narrative is deliberately kept concise and simple for non-technical readers but, at the same time, offers opportunity and pointers to research items of further interest. More emphasis is placed on developments in recent times although the foundations on which they grew are also highlighted. The ubiquitous position that personal computers have acquired in human lives is discussed in detail. Pace of development Computer technology has seen a remarkable change in the last century. Futurist Raymond Kurzweil aptly stated that “if the automobile industry had made as much progress in the past fifty years, a car today would cost a hundredth of a cent and go faster than the speed of light." (1999, pp. 21, 25). Considering that the slide rule was still in vogue in the last century and that the electronic calculators were considered a huge sign of progress as recently as in the early ‘70s, Kurzweil’s statement does not seem too far off the mark. From the room sized computers in the ‘60s and ‘70s to the net books of today which the user can carry anywhere in a small carry case and use it to connect to vast amounts of information and computing power, the pace of change has been tremendous. However, it is reassuring that these developments have been geared towards more power, ease and human friendliness by hiding the complexities of newer technologies. Early developments and first generation Humans have always been endeavouring to create aids to help them make calculations of various types. Also a critical part of human development has been the desire to automate and carry out complex tasks. The abacus is widely considered as one of the earliest computing, or calculating, devices. The abacus (Abacus) The invention of the abacus is attributed to the ancient Babylonian times in the period around 2700 BC but the earliest recorded written evidence of the device came from the Chinese in approximately 2nd century BC (Ifrah, 2001: pp. 11, 14). The abacus was capable of performing simple arithmetic functions. Scottish mathematician John Napier presented logarithms in 1614 allowing multiplications and divisions to be performed using addition and subtraction. The invention of the slide rule was closely followed which used logarithms to perform calculations and had been in use as recently as the mid 20th century. As the electronic calculator became widely available in the early ‘70s, the slide rule’s usage dropped significantly. These devices, including the electronic calculator we see today, were in the analogue computing domain. Digital computing, the form of computing as we see today all around us, began to take shape from the early 19th century. As opposed to analogue computing, efforts in digital computing history were geared towards complex calculations aided by stored information that could be reused in the process to achieve the final result. For example, while an analogue device could give the result for adding two numbers, a digital computer could be given instructions to repeat the process to add a desired list of numbers. In 1833 Charles Babbage began work on his mechanical “Analytical Engine” and extended the earlier work of Jacquard in automating looms to provide input through punched cards to the machine and also store results. Babbage’s engine was never completed by is considered one of the earliest precursors to modern computing where the concept of giving instructions to the computer and storing data are still paramount (Lambert et al, 2005: p. 3). In 1889, Herman Hollerith wrote an article describing his invention of storing and processing data using punched cards. Considered revolutionary for the time, his machine was used in the United States census of 1890 and reduced “information processing times by 80%” compared with earlier manual methods (Norman, 2005: p. 141). The Hollerith Machine (Hollerith Machine) Achieving commercial success, the company formed by Hollerith in 1896, the Tabulating Machine Company, was sold, merged and then renamed as International Business Machines, the IBM as we know it today. IBM has been a pioneer and has shaped the computer industry since its inception. In the first half of 20th century, developments in computing moved away from mechanical devices and into the electromechanical domain. At this point, it is also relevant to mention that there is no consensus on which computer was the “first” as there are many views on the subject. Parallel efforts were going on in several countries and institutions and while some are better known such as the Princeton University’s ENIAC, others less known projects also have their place in history and early research. Aiken in Harvard University, Zuse in Germany and Stibitz in Bell Laboratories with their electromechanical machines could all be classified as the early pioneers while, in UK, the Colossus, Manchester Baby Machine and the EDSAC were developed (Rojas & Hashagen, 2002: pp. 2-3). Second and third generation computers The second generation of computers were characterised by usage of transistor rather than vacuum tubes of earlier systems which were costlier, larger and more power intensive. IBM continued its early domination of the market and sold thousands of transistor based 1401 computers by mid 1960s (Pugh, 1995: p. 266). IBM 4301 (IBM) Second generation computers were used in governments, as well as small and large businesses. For example, the Internal Revenue Service of US used these computers to process tax returns (Ceruzzi, 2003: p. 109). The second generation computers could attach peripherals such as high speed printers and remote teletype terminals. Further miniaturisation in computer components took place when integrated circuits were adopted replacing the transistors. Computers based on integrated circuits are generally characterised as third generation computers. These systems were developed and sold in much larger numbers than their predecessors as they could hold more data, were smaller, used even less electricity and had more computing power. The larger systems were typically called mainframes and the relatively smaller in size and somewhat lesser in computing power were called mini computers. Minicomputers increased the outreach of computing to smaller business or distributed organisations which did not need the power of larger mainframes at the time. 1960’s and 1970’s saw a large number of third generation equipment being sold with IBM, DEC, Hewlett Packard and Data General some of the bigger players in the market. Fourth generation – the microprocessor revolution Fundamentally different and smaller by a large scale, the fourth generation computers came about after Intel’s invention of the microprocessor in 1971. Initially, interest in microprocessor based computing was displayed more by hobbyists than larger corporations like IBM. The Altair computer kit based on an Intel 8080 processor was released in 1975. Altair did not come with any input devices or other peripherals and was complex to programme. This prompted Bill Gates, the multi-billionaire of today who was a student at the time, to drop out of Harvard and team up with his friend Paul Allen to form Microsoft and offer the BASIC language code for the Altair 8800 (Microsoft). At about the same time Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak teamed up separately to create the first Apple computer. Wozniak used the 6502 microprocessor chip for this project as the cash strapped duo found it cheaper than the 8080. The Apple I was not a commercial success but using money from its bare minimum sales, they came up with Apple II which became popular. The cornerstone of Apple II’s success was its ease of use, a feature that the company still religiously adheres to (Ceruzzi, 2003: pp. 264-265). Rival brands offered cheaper personal computers and took the world by storm. The Commodore 64, Atari and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum were most popular in the US and Europe in the early 1980’s. The personal computers did not show any signs of making dents in the larger systems’ markets. Also, till the mid to late 1970’s, the larger computer manufacturers like IBM were unmoved by the huge sales in the personal computer and focused on their mainframe and mini computer domains. However, this changed when IBM decided to enter this market. Already late, IBM had to shelve its previous policy to manufacture most of its computer components itself and assemble off the shelf components to save time. Using the Intel 8088 processor, and Microsoft’s operating system, IBM released its first personal computer in 1981 (Pugh, 1995: p. 315). The IBM PC (IBM PC) Interestingly it was this policy from IBM to choose components from elsewhere that probably caused the personal computer’s worldwide adoption that we find today. Using 3rd party components prompted other companies to make systems similar to IBM’s. The openness of architecture and presence of several suppliers resulted in three significant outcomes: the prices continued to drop, computer sales and adoption skyrocketed, and technological improvements moved at a fast pace in the face of competition. Apple entered the scene again, this time by revolutionising the way computers were operated by people. Instead of the older character based input screens, Apple introduced the graphical user interface (GUI) in their latest product Macintosh which was released in 1984. Although the technology was a paradigm shift, sceptics mistakenly called it insignificant to mainstream computing. Later, Microsoft too released their first widely used GUI environment, Windows II, in 1987. The ubiquitous PC The twenty years have seen major developments in the computing arena. Networking and the Internet has allowed the already entrenched personal computer to access information from anywhere at any time. Miniaturization and development in the microprocessor technology has allowed the personal computer available to anyone on the move. One can use the same features, software and technology inside a personal computer in a portable notebook and carry it wherever one goes. In fact, in the last two years, even smaller computers, the net books, are gnawing away at the market share of notebooks. The first net book released in UK (PC World, 2008) Netbooks are much lighter and use much less power and hence are more portable than their predecessor. Advances in networking have allowed the net books, and indeed the personal computers, to connect to high speed internet access allowing sharing large data and access to large storehouses of computing power. Lately, the boundaries between mobile phone technologies and PC’s are blurring with increasing number of similar applications such as email, word processing and Internet access available on both. References Kurzweil, R. (1999) The age of spiritual machines: when computers exceed human intelligence. New York, NY: Viking. Ifrah, G. (2001) The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Lambert et al. (2005) The Internet: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 2, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Norman, J.M. (2005) From Gutenberg to the Internet: A Sourcebook on the History of Information Technology, Novato CA: Norman Publishing. Rojas, R., Hashagen, U. (2002) The first computers: history and architectures, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Pugh, E.W. (1995) Building IBM: shaping an industry and its technology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Ceruzzi, P.E. (2003) A history of modern computing, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Abacus [electronic print] Available at: http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102630541 [Accessed 18 May 2010]. Hollerith Machine [electronic print] Available at: http://www.ibm.com/ibm/greateribm/connections/connections_article26.shtml [Accessed 18 May 2010]. IBM [electronic print] Available at: http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1959.html [Accessed 16 May 2010]. IBM PC [electronic print] Available at: http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc/pc_1.html [Accessed 17 May 2010]. Microsoft (2005) "Key Events In Microsoft History”. Microsoft Visitor Centre Student Information.http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=7c3aa43e-d11c-48a4-878d-191dbeb87cba&displaylang=en. [Accessed 16 May 2010]. ZD Net (2008) [electronic print] PC World claims UK first with Atom netbook. Available at: http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/mobile-devices/2008/07/07/pc-world-claims-uk-first-with-atom-netbook-39443792/ [Accessed 17 May 2010]. Read More