Waste Management in Construction Industry - Essay Example

WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE U.K. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Waste Management in the U.K. Construction Industry - An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Waste Minimisation Strategies [Name] [Institution] [Instructor] [Course] Abstract This paper characterises the importance of waste minimisation techniques such as reducing, reusing, recycling, and disposing of construction waste, addressing the most common factors that affect the reuse and recycling of construction waste. It also provides a guidelines on process and practices to manage construction waste on-site. The paper show the conditions and premises due to which the construction materials go to waste and to introduce viable alternatives in order to provide pollution prevention and waste minimization. This paper evaluates the environmental implications and resource conservation of using innovative materials as a source of construction rather than using the more polluting materials currently in practice. The scope of analysis for the paper was developed based upon the following waste management hierarchy, in order of preference: reduce/minimize waste generation; reuse waste materials for their original intended purpose; recycle waste materials for other use; dispose of remaining materials. Waste Management in the U.K. Construction Industry - An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Waste Minimisation Strategies Introduction The construction industry, and particularly design, construction, demolition, upgrade and maintenance of structures have a tremendous impact on environment and natural resources. The resulting waste materials, their volume minimisation and their reuse or recycling have been of concern to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other legislating bodies for some time now. The demolition of existing structures and the construction of new ones to meet the needs of a growing nation generate an enormous amount of debris, some of it even hazardous in nature. Disposing of construction and demolition debris in landfills consumes enormous amounts of difficult to develop space and is both economically and environmentally costly. The challenge has been, as more and more engineers and architects realise, to design and build buildings in a smart way, so they use a minimum of non-renewable energy, produce a minimum of pollution, and cost a minimum of energy money to operate, while maximising the comfort, health, and safety of the people who live and work in them. The consumption of construction materials, energy, and water as well as the increased land use for buildings and infrastructure, represent a potential impact on the environment. Environmental damages caused by the depletion of natural resources and the increase of waste have left the experimentation with alternative strategies for waste minimisation plans (WMP) such as reducing, reusing, and recycling. This offers the opportunity to safeguard the environment and to achieve monetary savings when managing construction waste in a proper manner. However, construction management often fails to identify or to address waste in the construction process. Generally, waste is not properly recognised due to the absence of appropriate tools for measuring waste or value (Coventry and Woolveridge, 1999). Reducing construction waste involves an integrated process of designing and constructing new buildings, while making efficient use of materials. The minimisation of the production waste, the efficient use of materials and the recycling of waste are another way of conserving the environment and forms part of the principles of sustainable development. The continuous awareness of the environmental issues put increasing pressure on construction industry to improve its environmental standards. Government legislation is becoming increasingly stringent and the general public demonstrates increasing intolerance and concern for environmentally unsound construction practice; all these make it impossible for the construction industry to ignore the environmental issues that arise from its practice. This paper will analyse and assess the strategies of implementing waste minimisation techniques at a construction site, and to develop methods that can be used to identify and predict the type and quantity of waste generated by construction activities for waste management purposes. The main emphasis will be put at U.K. construction waste area, including current situation, governmental regulations and some possible strategies to minimise waste effects. In conclusion some suggestions will be presented and discussed. Construction Waste Management and Waste Minimisation Issue Waste is generally defined in the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA) as "any substance which constitutes a scrap material or an effluent or other unwanted surplus substance arising from the application of any process', and 'any substance or article which requires to be disposed of as being broken, worn out, contaminated or otherwise spoiled". Construction and demolition waste, as defined by The Controlled Waste Regulations (1992), is "waste arising from works of construction and demolition, including waste arising from work preparatory thereto". Construction waste has also been defined as "any inefficiency that results in the use of equipment, materials, labour or capital in larger quantities than those considered as necessary in the production of a building." (Koskela, 1992) Waste Management is the cornerstone for successful pollution prevention. Building construction, disaster cleanup, and demolition projects pose unique challenges in the area of waste management and pollution prevention. Since each project is different, generating its own unique combination of wastes, flexible and creative measures have to be implemented in order to find ways to reduce, reuse, recycle or dispose of, in an environmentally responsible way, the various types of waste generated. (Ferguson et al., 1995) Contractors and owners can realise high levels of construction waste diversion and cost savings through careful planning throughout the project, establishment of construction goals, and provisions for the generation minimisation, separation, salvage, reuse, recycling and disposal of waste. The ultimate goal is to reduce the amount of construction waste destined for landfilling to an absolute minimum. (CIRIA, 1998) This also helps the contractor to identify opportunities from waste as a resource rather than having to deal with it as a problem and extra cost of operation on site. With the advent of the concept of sustainable development, construction industries around the world have embarked on strategies to deliver environmentally responsible construction. (Teo and Loosemore, 2001) Waste minimisation can cause significant savings to a company. Many construction companies have had an increase in their profit by implementing appropriate waste minimisation measures that helped them to reduce their waste. What is more, the construction industry is under increased pressure by the government and the local authorities to minimise waste, so that it can play its part in sustainable development. (Guthrie and Mallett, 1995) As Humphreys and Partners (1994), explain, the principles of sustainable development require the minimisation of the production of waste, the efficient use of materials and the recycling of wastes. In an ideal world, it would be generally better to avoid waste, or to reuse most materials, however, since that is not feasible, many attempts have been made in order to minimise it. Recycling is part of a strategy aimed at waste minimisation. A broad hierarchical approach has been developed by the government to deal with the waste as it can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1. Waste hierarchy. (Coventry et al, 2001) According to Humphreys and Partners (1994), reduction of waste is achieved by using technology that requires less material in products and produces less waste in manufacture, and by producing longer lasting products with lower pollution potential. At the top of the hierarchy is the most important step toward a more sustainable industry, reduce. This step is the foundation of designing for the environment Reduction requires careful planning, rethinking current practices, and implementing sustainable alternatives. Reuse (reusable transport packaging for example) is the next choice to consider. Recovery includes recycling, to produce a useful product, composting (creating products such as soil conditioners), and use for energy production (by burning waste or by using landfill gas). Disposal is the last option and is done either by incineration or landfill. (Faniran and Caban, 1998) Waste minimisation should be considered since the initial stages of a project through both design and construction. As Coventry et al, (2001), mention, waste minimisation can be achieved by, the reuse of materials or use of recycled materials, appropriate materials and dimensions, prefabrication, efficient ordering of materials, materials handling and storage, contractual arrangements, efficient waste management-segregation and efficient waste management-auditing. Construction Waste in United Kingdom Demolition and construction produced in 2003 waste of 91 mln. tonnes in Wales and England. 40 mln. tonnes of this, or 44 percents was used as recycled aggregate and an additional 6 mln. tonnes or 6.5 percents as recycled soil for restoration or landfill engineering. The remaining 45 mln. tonnes was either used to backfill quarry voids, disposed of at landfill sites or spread on registered exempt sites. 13 mln. tonnes of this consists of material delivered to sites but never used. (Sustainable Construction Strategy Report, 2006) That waste represents a significant proportion, 16% of total UK waste arisings. The majority of this waste is bulky and inert, and it is not susceptible to treatment such as incineration or biodegradation. (DEFRA, 2005) However, with the decrease in space to dispose of this material and the need for the industry to face its environmental responsibilities, it is important that the industry minimises construction and demolition waste. In fact, there is considerable potential for using recycled construction and demolition waste as a substitute for primary aggregates and other quarried building materials. (NetRegs, 2005) RECYCLING Figure 2. Options for the management of construction and demolition wastes (Humphreys and Partners, 1994). The correct management of demolition and construction wastes is fundamental to their effective use. There are several options for the disposal of these materials and generally the option selected is the most cost effective one, taking into account the project/site requirements, statutory controls, local demands, local facilities and haulage costs. Recycling is defined by Humphreys and Partners (1994), as the collection and separation of waste materials and subsequent processing to usable or marketable products. The processing step can be crude (e.g. coarse crushing for site roads) or sophisticated (e.g. multistage crushing for aggregates). The main options for disposal, as taken from Humphreys and Partners (1994), are summarised in Figure 2. Waste strategy 2000 for England and Wales, reveals that 30 percents used for landfill engineering; 30 percents deposited at landfill; 29 percents of construction and demolition waste was used on-site or sold off-site possibly after low-level processing. Only 4 percents of the waste is subjected to high-level processing to meet the standard required for use in place of primary aggregates and the remaining 7 percents is unaccounted for (probably disposed of illegally or used for agriculture). These are summarised in Figure 3. Figure 3. Disposal Routes for Construction and Demolition Wastes (Humphreys and Partners, 1994) Governmental Regulation of Construction Waste Management The Government by means of the Environment Agency (EA) wants to control waste in a sustainable way, to optimise recycling and re-use as well as preventing its production, with the existing legal arrangements. The EA is involved in numerous projects, regularly working with industry sectors as well as construction. EA determines when waste has ceased to be waste - the Quality Protocol for the Production of Aggregates, for instance - and working out innovative approaches to low risk waste regulation. (Environment Agency, 2005) The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), leads on waste management (WM) issues, and currently looking at launching the Site Waste Management Plans as a regulatory requirement for construction industry, and the scope and scale of these is being considered in the course of an official consultation procedure with industry in 2006. (DTI, 2006) Fly-tipping is one of numerous problems Anti-Social Behaviour Act highlighted (Nov 2003). Now, the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005 contains WM provisions, including fly-tipping, and may require construction enterprises to have Site WM Plans. (DEFRA, 2005) Waste Strategy 2000 set the government strategy for WM in Wales and England up to 2020. A review of the Strategy was activated in 2005 and provides a chance to reflect on delivery mechanisms and existing policies, to evaluate development to date, and to set out the Government's waste strategy. The Government intends to issue a trustworthy revised waste strategy for U.K in 2006, setting its vision and strategic direction on waste for the next 15 years, as well as the policies and actions to deliver the strategy. (DTI, 2006) Main themes will include: "making a modernised land use planning regime deliver for waste; a clearer long-term vision for waste and resource management as part of the Government's drive for sustainable development and in particular sustainable consumption and production; the use of economic and other incentives to drive businesses and consumers to manage their waste and resources more sustainably" (DEFRA, 2006) Sustainability in the construction sector is supported by economic instruments, which include the Aggregates Levy and the Landfill Tax. Landfill Tax contributes to the enhancement of an environmentally sustainable economy by undertaking the United Kingdom's over-reliance on landfill in construction and encouraging more effective WM options, including re-use and recycling. Landfill Tax applies to all waste disposed of on or after 1 October 1996 by way of landfill by local authorities and businesses at licensed landfill sites, unless the waste is particularly exempt and is paid by the landfill site operator. (HM Treasury, 2000) In April 2002 DEFRA proclaimed the establishment of the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund. The proposed intentions of the ALSF are to: "reduce the local effects of aggregate extraction; promote environmentally friendly extraction and transport; minimise the demand for primary aggregates." (DEFRA, 2005) For this, DEFRA proposed that the existing Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) and the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) launch a programme to deliver related tasks. There were identified two work streams: "research into more sustainable construction and demolition practices; and overcoming market barriers and promoting the increased use of alternative materials and recycled aggregates." (WRAP, 2005) WRAP forecasts a 10 mln. tonnes yearly aggregates production increase in the from Construction Demolition and Excavation Waste (CDEW) between 2004 and 2011. Waste and Resources Action Programme is backing this extension of historic enlargement through increasing both market awareness and confidence, and spreading good practice and knowledge. (WRAP, 2005) WRAP is also pursuing materials resource efficiency in construction through promoting good practice in site WM and waste minimisation, recycling other construction waste materials, and supporting the procurement of recycled materials in construction projects. (ENDS Report, 2001) Waste Minimisation Strategies Reducing Construction Waste Source reduction is the fact of preventing waste at the source by efficiently using materials, energy, water, and other resources. In terms of reducing construction waste during the design phase, architects, engineers, and constructors should take into consideration the type and quantity of material that they are going to use during construction. Bid estimators have to consider in their calculations the avoidance of over excess materials that in different percentages are unused and in many cases are disposed of as waste. In addition, all constructors and sub-constructors involved in the development of a new project have to clearly understand and show their commitment early in the construction process, during the development of the contract. (Johnston & Mincks, 1995) Material specifications, such as quality, durability, resistance and best practices for handling and storage, can be useful when implementing waste minimisation or waste reduction plans. The following approaches will be useful in both design and construction stage to minimise the generation of construction waste (Coventry and Woolveridge, 1999): the use of standard dimensions in the building design will reduce the quantity of material leftover on-site; the implementation of construction techniques such as the use of less framing by increasing spacing of joist and studs i s a good alternative for waste reduction and avoidance; the efficient use of materials by crews and subcontractors reduces waste and improves materials budget; the implementation of processes that ensure the reduction of waste due to error, poor planning, mishandling, breakage, contamination, etc. is very important. The generation of waste can also be minimised and prevented by utilising materials more efficiently and by extending the length of use to avoid replacement. (Griffith, 1994) Reuse of Construction Materials The reuse of materials extends the usefulness of these items and prevents sending them to landfills. At the same time, this action contributes to substantial embodied energy savings even more than using recycled materials, although reusing materials often requires intensive cleaning and frequently repairs. There are two options to reuse construction materials. One option is the reuse of construction waste on-site, and the other option is the reuse of this material off-site. (Symonds Group Ltd, 1999) Good examples of materials that can be reused on-site are brick and concrete waste in activities such as driveway or sidewalk construction. Form wood and wood pallets can be reused in a large number of activities in construction sites. (Kibert, 1994) During construction of any residential or non-residential building the use of wood is often intensive from the beginning of the project in activities such as formwork, scaffolding, cave inns protection, material storage and transportation, etc. However, the design of formwork should maximise the use of standard forms and shapes for this type of material, applying the same criteria for materials such as plywood, particle board, wood pallets, etc., in order to achieve high reuse levels. (Bossink & Brouwers, 1996) In addition, an alternative such as steel formwork allows constructors the possibility of reusing this material for many construction projects, allowing at the same time allowing the possibility of achieving substantial savings. (Ferguson et al., 1996) Recycle of Construction Materials Recycling of construction waste includes the sorting, cleaning, and transportation of recoverable materials generated during construction. Also, it includes establishing a series of arrangements for material delivery and drop-offs. Resource recycling is often viable and is turning into a cost-effective alternative, but it relies on proper planning before construction begins. This includes specifying materials that are recyclable, evaluating the availability of recovery systems and markets for materials with recycled content, and taking into account alternative technical approaches such as regulatory requirements, environmental, and economical considerations, etc. (Symonds Group Ltd, 1999) The implementation of recycling activities for CRD waste should not be regarded only as a waste minimisation strategy in order to reduce disposal costs or as an instrument used by municipalities to reduce the stress caused by indiscriminate CRD disposal at landfills. (Faniran and Caban, 1998) Limited landfill capacity is only a part of the problem; the real problem has to be analysed from different angles, such as the huge energy embodied in these materials, energy that is wasted and not recovered even when energy extraction from landfills is applied. Electricity generated by waste to energy plants is far less than the quantity of energy that is possible to obtain from material recycling. (Kibert, 1994). Most of the construction waste materials (such as metal, concrete, bricks, masonry, gravel, etc.) do not generate greenhouse gases if disposed at landfills. However, the recycling of these materials conserves the use of energy that would be used in producing and transporting new products. (Ferguson et al., 1996) The recycling of materials such as cardboard or paper products does prevent the emission of greenhouse gases, as they generate methane when decomposing in landfills, or carbon dioxide if incinerated. The benefits of recycling construction waste are multiple. Recycling construction waste materials provides easy manufacturing feedstock rather than extracting raw materials from mines and forest. In addition to these considerations recycling of construction waste also implies social benefits and employment opportunities. (Guthrie and Mallett, 1995) Disposal of Remaining Materials Landfills are designed for the disposal of municipal solid waste and not for the indiscriminate disposal of unsorted construction waste. In some countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, and in some states in the U.S., landfills only accept CRD waste that contains less than 30% by weight of inert material. CRD wastes containing more than 30% by weight of inert materials will be rejected according to the landfill policies. (Coventry and Woolveridge, 1999) This construction waste is generally categorised on-sites as miscellaneous or mixed CRD waste. This type of waste is the result of improper material separation, sorting, or contamination. It may be that it is of low recyclable value and/or the quantity of waste generation may pose another obstacle since, in some cases, small quantities of waste do not justify separation and collection into a separate bin. However, many landfills, especially in Southern England, have taken the step of restricting and banning construction waste disposal. (Coventry et al., 2001) Materials on-site may be inert (e.g. rock soil, brick, and debris) and/or non-inert (e.g. plaster, plastic, timber, bitumen, paint, glass, bamboo, and other mixed materials) and are often consider non-hazardous but can become hazardous depending on the disposal method. Incineration of treated wood can produce toxic fumes, and drywall (gypsum) disposed at landfills can generate an acid gas called hydrogen sulphide. On-site sorting of construction waste reduces the environmental impact of the inert portion and allows the possibility to dispose CRD waste at public filling areas. (Symonds Group Ltd, 1999) Recycling Benefits and Constraints There are two fundamental reasons for minimising waste, therefore, for introducing the recycling of construction materials; first of all economic benefits, since the generation of less waste reduces costs and, and secondly environmental benefits, since minimising waste by recycling reduces environmental damage. (Johnston and Mincks, 1995) The strategies may include: the redirection of construction waste from landfill sites to extended use applications (i.e., reuse and recycling); innovations in the building waste removal process to ensure the recovery of good quality secondary materials; innovations in construction site practices to prioritise waste generation prevention and management; instruments to stimulate secondary construction markets. (Ferguson et al., 1996) Other factors that are desirable in a waste management plan include: a waste audit; waste disposal options; waste handling requirements; transportation requirements. (Griffith, 1994) During this research it was found that there are several environmental benefits from the recycling of construction materials. First of all there is a reduction in the amount of waste that is produced and a minimisation of the amount of waste that is actually sent for disposal. That helps in the conservation of landfill capacity by not depositing the waste materials. Moreover, soil contamination is reduced. Then, it is known that natural resources are being exploited now much more rapidly than ever before. The construction industry is a major user of resources that are mined or quarried from the natural environment. By recycling, the requirements for primary aggregates are reduced and therefore there is a saving on their extraction. Further, the ecosystems have become quite fragile. The natural habitat is diminished and many species are being extinguished. Construction activities can cause damage to the surrounding air, land and water resources and to plant and animal life. By recycling, the risks of immediate and future environmental pollution that cause harm to human and animal health are reduced. Finally, by recycling there is a reduction in energy use, from the minimised transportation of waste. Moreover, since the transportation is reduced, there is a minimisation of noise, dust and vehicle emissions. (Ferguson et al., 1996) In the UK, the recycling of construction and demolition wastes is constrained by factors that arise from regulation, financial conditions and user requirements. According to Humphreys and Partners, (1994), there are several statutory controls, such as permission and/or licences that are required before recycling starts. Furthermore, although local authorities support recycling, it may become difficult to obtain certain planning permissions. Sometimes the quality of the materials is poor, badly mixed and potentially contaminated. The financial returns of the recycling industry are quite low; therefore investment in processing plants is kept to a minimum. (Coventry et al., 2001) Also, there is not enough quality control; the sources of materials are generally not inspected and often there is considerable mixing at the processing site that results in the contamination of the end product (Guthrie and Mallett, 1995). Finally, there are quite a few environmental concerns about the potential polluting effect on ground water and watercourses from industrial sources. Summary Construction sites are often the cause of local environmental impacts such as dust, noise, vibration and pollution of soil, watercourses, and groundwater. Environmentally friendly practices are needed on all sites, not just to reduce the risk of prosecution, but also to reduce costs associated with construction waste management and to mitigate environmental impacts, The benefits of adopting a sustainable approach include reductions in waste management costs, improved efficiency and productivity, compliance with present and future environmental rules and regulations, and improvement of corporate image. Sustainable construction can minimise the environmental impacts of construction through specifications and continue monitoring of construction activities. Most of these impacts can be predetermined during the design phase. However, on-site solid waste management can significantly reduce the impacts of construction activities. The efficient use of construction materials represents money-savings, reduction of solid waste, reduction of energy consumption, as well as pollution prevention from different construction processes. Within this process, the implementation of recycling activities for construction waste can be applied to the majority of inert minerals. The recycling of mineral wastes minimises the environmental impact of quarrying or mining limited natural resources. This activity can also reduce costs associated with solid waste transportation and disposal and diminish the exploitation of non-renewable resources. In addition, recycling of construction waste reduces the amount of solid waste at landfills allowing more non-recoverable wastes to he disposed. It can be said that in its broadest sense, construction is responsible for the built environment that dominates the inhabited land. Nevertheless, if construction is not implemented correctly it can have serious impacts to the environment, which nowadays is quite fragile. More and more people and more importantly governments, are becoming conscious of the criticality of the situation and move towards more effective and sustainable policies in order to conserve the environment. Many organisations have developed an environmental management system and have tried to implement an effective waste minimisation scheme; that does not only benefit their organisation, but the environment as well. Recycling is part of the minimisation strategy and as it was seen throughout the paper, it has many economic, energy, but most importantly, many environmental benefits. It is true that recycling itself has some environmental impacts. However, it can achieve minimisation of waste, conservation of the natural resources, and provide hope for the future - a thing that is actually priceless. References Bossink, A. and Brouwers, H. (1996). Construction waste: quantification and source evaluation. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 122(1), 55-60 CIRIA. (1998). Waste Minimisation and Recycling in Construction. Boardroom Handbook, Construction Industry Research and Information Association. London Coventry, S., Kingsley, M. and Shorter, B. (2001). Demonstrating Waste Minimisation Benefits in Construction. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London Coventry, S. and Woolveridge C., (1999). Environmental Good Practice on Site. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London DEFRA. (2005-6). Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Available from: www.defra.gov.uk DTI. (January 2006). Sustainable Construction Strategy Report 2006. Draft. Department of Trade and Industry. Available from: www.dti.gov.uk EA. (2005). Environment Agency. Available from: www.environmentagency.gov.uk ENDS Report (2001). WRAP suggests ambitious targets to boost recycle markets. Environmental Data Services Report 313, February, 16-17. Environmental Protection Act (1990). (c. 43). Available from: http://www.wasteworks.org.uk/legislation/legislation.asp Faniran, O. and Caban, G. (1998). Minimizing waste on construction project sites, engineering. Construction and Architectural Management, 5(2), 182-8. Ferguson, J., Kermode, N., Nash, C., Sketch, W. and Huxford, R. (1995). Managing and Minimizing Construction Waste - A Practical Guide. Institution of Civil Engineers, London. Griffith, A. (1994). Environmental Management in Construction. Macmillan, Guthrie, P. and Mallett, H. (Eds.) (1995). Waste Minimisation and Recycling in Construction: A Review. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London. Humphreys H. and Partners (1994) Managing Demolition and Construction Wastes. Report of the study on the recycling of demolition and construction wastes in the UK, for the Department of the Environment. HMSO, London. HM Treasury (2000) Consultation on the Objectives of the Sustainability Fund under the Aggregates Levy Package. Available from: http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/docs/2000/sfcons2108.html. Johnston, H. and Mincks, W. (1995). Cost-effective waste minimisation for construction managers. Cost Engineering, 37(1), 31-7. Kibert, C. (ed.) (1994). Sustainable Construction. Center for Construction and Environment, Gainesville, USA. Koskela, L. (1992). Application Of The New Production Philosophy Of Construction. Technical Report, No.72, CIFE Stanford University, Stanford, CA. NetRegs. (2005). Environment Agency. Available from: www.netregs.gov.uk Symonds Group Ltd. (1999). Construction and demolition waste management practices, and their economic impacts. DGXI, European Commission. The Controlled Waste Regulations. (1992). Statutory Instrument No. 588. Available from: www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1992/Uksi_19920588_en_5.htm Teo, M. and Loosemore, M. (2001). A theory of waste behaviour in the construction industry. Construction Management and Economics 19, 741-751 Stationary Office. (2000). Waste Strategy 2000 for England and Wales. Part 1. Available from: www.defra.gov.uk/Environment/waste/strategy Waste Works. (1995). A Strategy for Sustainable Waste Management in England and Wales, Making Waste Work. WRAP. (2005). Waste and Resources Action Programme. Available from:www.wrap.org.uk Read More