Critically Evaluate The Use of Qualitative Methodologies - Research Paper Example

Qualitative Research The use of scientific research and qualitative research can be traced back to colonial times. In fact, the word research is linked to colonialism. Research was once referred to as a ‘dirty’ word in that it was linked to the time when colonial power used it to collect and classify information and knowledge about indigenous peoples, and then represent back to the West. Research was a trend that became powerful. However the term ‘research’ evolved is not a question here, but how this is used to arrive at a certain truth, understanding of human behaviour, or conclusions of phenomena, is what is important. Evolutions are always something from bad to good, and occasionally from good to bad. The evolution of qualitative research will lead us to different truths of human behaviour, organizational behaviour, and the studies of the different sciences. Qualitative research is seeking at human knowledge through the use of empirical data, reason, and the development of scientific laws to explain phenomena. It is used to arrive at a certain truth, understand human behaviour, or reach at a conclusion for certain phenomena. Moreover, it refers to ‘social research that uses text data instead of numerical data, analyzes those data in their textual form rather than converting them to numbers for analysis, aims to understand the meaning of human action (Schwandt, 2001), and asks open questions about phenomena as they occur in context rather than setting out to test predetermined hypotheses’ (Carter and Little, 2007, p. 1316). The ideal type of qualitative study has flexibility in design: the inability to specify the details in advance, but to indicate in the design at what point further decisions will be made. The detailed design emerges during the study (Brown, 2010, p. 230). This explains the idea of progress as you come along; or, skill can come in while on the job. Another definition of qualitative research is that it ‘is interested in the quality of a particular activity than in how it occurs or how it would otherwise be evaluated’ (Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p. 430). A major activity for this kind of research is investigating the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials. Emphasis is on holistic description, i.e. on describing in detail all of what goes on in a particular activity or situation. (Fraenkel and Wallen, p. 430) The qualitative researcher is described as scientist, naturalist, field-worker, journalist, social critic, artist, performer, jazz musician, filmmaker quilt maker, essayist (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005 p. 4). Qualitative research includes traditions associated with foundationalism, positivism postfoundationalism, postpositivism, poststrustruralism, and the many qualitative research perspectives, and/or methods connected to cultural and interpretive studies. Epistemology Epistemology deals with the theory of knowledge. A reflexive researcher actively adopts a theory of knowledge. A less reflexive researcher implicitly adopts a theory of knowledge, as it is impossible to engage in knowledge creation without at least tacit assumptions about what knowledge is and how it is constructed. (Carter and Little, 2007, p. 1319) Knowledge creation occurs through a combination of tacit and explicit knowledge; direct experiences during the socialization phase enable the accumulation of tacit knowledge. In the age of globalisation and information revolution, we come to a point where interacting in a network is not uncommon: people and organisations input data and information along with knowledge and expertise, and even wisdom. Epistemology influences the relationship between the researcher and the participant. Some theories offer unique worldviews for knowing and understanding human behaviour. The objectivist epistemologies present a much different view of the social world than the constructivist epistemologies. The objectivist suggests that reality is independent of the person, whereas the constructivist argues that reality is created by each individual. Truth is relative according to the constructivist approach whereas the objectivist worldview concludes that truth is absolute. Knowledge development, in the objectivist approach, results from the categorizing of concepts; the constructivist orientation views knowledge as fluid. The constructivist understands science as a process unique to the observer; the objectivist views science as the core methodology of discovery. Thus, science is the pinnacle of objectivism. A sound knowledge base for social work practice will only emerge from a greater emphasis on science. (Meinert et al., 2000, p. 46) A constructivist approach necessitates a flexible design and researchers facing ‘the prospect of not knowing what they don’t know’ (Guba and Lincoln, 1988: 105, cited in Brown, 2010, p. 230). Nevertheless, most researchers learn ‘on the job’ or ‘by osmosis’. Researchers learn by speaking to and observing colleagues and by reading their work. In this process, there is a general lack of confidence in one’s own skills, even on the part of experienced researchers. But the aim is to be able to provide a correct collection of data within a preconceived plan. Positivists believe that the scientific method is the surest way to produce effective knowledge. The task of science is to discover the nature of reality and how it works. A related emphasis is on breaking complex phenomena down into manageable pieces for study and eventual reassembly into the whole. Scholars engaged in traditional forms of qualitative research have in some ways adopted explicit and implicit positivist and postpositivist criteria, which is also termed as foundationalism (Guba & Lincoln, 2005; House, 2005, cited in Amis and Silk, 2008, p. 459). According to this concept, quality is judged according to traditional criteria of internal and external validity, reliability, objectivity, and generalizability. Thus, often unwieldy and unstructured data are reduced, systematically elicited, standardized, and quantified in relation to predetermined categorizations through a range of techniques and methods. (Amis and Silk, 2008, p. 459) In the positivist version, it is contended that there is a reality out there to be studied captured, and understood, whereas the postpositivists argue that reality can never be fully apprehended, only approximated (Guba, 1990, p. 22, cited in Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, p. 11). Postpositivism relies on multiple methods as a way of capturing as much of reality as possible, and emphasizes the discovery and verification of theories. If we adopt the position that meaningful qualitative research is that which in some way addresses the social ills of the world around us, then quality becomes bound with an ethic of personal and community responsibility (Collins, 1991) that empowers those disadvantaged in, and by, organizations. (Amis and Silk, 2009, p. 468) One way of examining the problems with survey research questions is to look at the methodological and theoretical assumptions underlying them. (Hollway and Jefferson, 2005, p.8) Discussion Methodologies and Methods Methodologies are the reconstructed logics that justify, explain, and help us understand research methods. Objectives, research questions, and design shape the choice of methodology, and methodology shapes the objectives, research questions, and design. (Carter and Little, 2007, p. 1324) Sandra Harding (cited in Maynard, 2005, p. 10) makes a distinction between discussions of method, of methodology and of epistemology: “Method refers to techniques for gathering research material; methodology provides both theory and analysis of the research process”. The term ‘method’ is often used to refer to all three of these elements of research, ‘leading us to think that this lack of clarity has impeded feminists in their quest convincingly to set out what is specifically ‘feminist’ about their work’ (Harding, p. 20, cited in Maynard, 2005). Methods involve the gathering of data. Before the start of any research, the researcher should first decide what kind of data he/she wants to obtain in the study. The term data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects of their research. One kind of data is demographic information which tells about age, gender, ethnicity, religion, and so on. Another kind of data are the scores obtained from a test prepared by a researcher. Then we also have responses to the researcher’s questions in an oral interview or written replies to a survey questionnaire. (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2006, p. 112) Instrumentation An instrument is a devise used to gather data. Researchers use these data to make inferences about the characteristics of certain individuals. (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2006, p. 113) The process of preparing to collect data is called instrumentation, which involves not only the selection or design of the instruments but also the procedures and the conditions under which the instruments will be administered. Questions to be answered here are: Where will the data be collected? When will the data be collected? How often are the data to be collected? Who is to collect the data? These are important because how researchers answer them may affect the data obtained. All researchers want instruments that permit them to draw warranted, or valid, conclusions about the characteristics of the individuals they study. A reliable instrument is one that gives consistent results. Interview One method of collecting data used by qualitative researchers is the interview method. Interviewing, or careful asking of relevant questions, is an important way for a researcher to check the accuracy of – to verify or refute – the impressions he or she has gained through observation. Interviewing has been described as the most important data collection technique a qualitative researcher possesses. (M. Fetterman, 1989, cited in Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p.455) The purpose of interviewing people is to find out what is on their mind – what they think or how they feel about something. Patton (1990, cited in Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p. 455) explains: We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot directly observe. The issue is no whether observational data is more desirable valid or meaningful than self-report data. The fact of the matter is that we cannot observe everything. We cannot observe feelings thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things. Types of interviews 1.) Structured and semistructured interviews are verbal questionnaires which consist of a series of questions designed to elicit specific answers from respondents. They are used to obtain information that can be later be compared and contrasted 2.) Informal interviews tend to resemble casual conversations pursuing the interests of both the researcher and the respondent in turn. They are the most common type of interview in qualitative research. They do not involve any specific type or sequence of questions or any particular form of questioning. The purpose of informal interview is to find out what people think and how the views of one individual compare with those of another. (Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p. 455) 3.) Retrospective interviews can be structured semi-structured, or informal. When a researcher does this, he/she tries to get a respondent to recall and then reconstruct from memory something that has happened in the past. This kind of interview is the least likely of the four interview types to provide accurate, reliable data for the researcher. In interviewing, the researcher should observe ethics or good behaviour. Some suggestions for good behaviour are provided by Frankel and Warren (2006, p. 458): Respect the culture of the group being studied. Respect the individual being interviewed. Be natural. Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant. Ask the same question in different ways during the interview. Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is some doubt about the completeness of a remark. Vary who controls the flow of communication. In a formal, structured interview, it is often necessary for the researcher to control the asking of questions and the pace of the discussion. Avoid leading questions. (Fraenkel and Warren, 2006 p. 458-9) Ethics in interviewing In interviews, a measure of intimacy can develop between the interviewer and the interviewee which can lead participants to describe events in their lives, leading them to become vulnerable when the contents of the interview are misused. Participants deserve to be protected from this situation, and the interviewers too deserve to be protected against any misunderstanding on the part of the participants as to the nature and purpose of the interview. (Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p. 462) Questionnaires Submitting written questionnaires to participants for them to answer with or without time pressure is one way of collecting data. The questionnaires are prepared beforehand and a number of participants are asked to answer in writing. There are various types of questionnaires that include those answerable by a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’; those answerable by choosing from a five-point Likert scale where participants are asked to choose from five answers, and those which require an opinion essay-type answers. This is the easiest method of gathering data but one of the most unreliable. The researcher has only to send the questionnaires after having contacted a number of participants, probably through letter-requests or through email, and wait for the participants to submit back the answered questionnaires. Some vague or doubtful answers of these questionnaires need a follow-up through telephone or email. But using questionnaires through a long distance data-gathering with the use of emails and the internet can also provide easy method for the researcher. Observation Certain kinds of research questions can best be answered by observing how people act or how things look. There are four different roles that a researcher can take, ranging from being a complete participant to complete observer. 1.) Participant observation Here researchers actually participate in the situation or setting they are observing. In complete participation, the researcher, as complete participant, is not known to any of the individuals being observed. When the researcher is participant-as-observer, he participates fully in the activities but also makes it clear that he is doing researcher. 2.) Non-participant observation The researcher does not participate in the activity being observed but rather “sit on the sidelines” and watch; in other words, he/she is not directly involved in the situation being observed. 3.) Naturalistic observation This involves observing individuals in their natural settings wherein the researcher makes no effort whatsoever to manipulate variables or to control the activities of individuals, but simple observes and records what happens as things naturally occur. (Fraenkel and Warren, 2006, p. 451) 4.) Simulations To investigate certain variables, researchers sometimes will create a situation and ask subjects to act out, or simulate, certain roles. Here, the researcher actually tells the subject what to do. The Debate on Feminism The idea that feminism has a method of conducting social research has been criticized of late. The arguments advocated and defended a qualitative approach to understanding women’s lives as against quantitative methods of enquiry. Quantitative research, particularly surveys and questionnaires, was seen to represent a ‘masculinist’ form of knowing, where the emphasis was on the detachment of the researcher and the collection and measurement of ‘objective’ social facts through a (supposedly) value-free form of data collection. (Hollway and Jefferson, 2005, p. 9) Ethics Ethics concerns morality of human conduct. In social research, it concerns moral deliberation, choice and accountability on the part of researchers throughout the research process. Unless otherwise agreed to, the identities of all who participate in a qualitative study should always be protected; care should be taken to ensure that none of the information collected would embarrass or harm them. If confidentiality cannot be maintained, participants must be so informed and given the opportunity to withdraw from the study. Participants should always be treated with respect. It is especially important in qualitative studies to seek the cooperation of all subjects in the research endeavor. Researchers should ensure that no physical or psychological harm will come to anyone who participates in the study. Conclusion Quantitative and qualitative researchers have their own different paradigms which means differences in the basic set of beliefs or assumptions that guide the way they approach their investigations. These are views that are related to the nature of reality, the relationship of the researcher to that which he/she is studying, the role of values in a study, and the process of research itself. The use of qualitative methods, which focus more on the subjective experiences and meanings of those being researched, is regarded as more appropriate to the kinds of knowledge that feminists wished to make available as well as being more in keeping with the politics of doing research as a feminist. Semi-structured or unstructured interviewing has been the research technique most often associated with this stance, although this can, of course, produce both quantitative and qualitative data. The different methods of qualitative research have their own advantages and disadvantages. Every qualitative study has a distinct starting and ending point. It beings when the research identifies the phenomenon he or she wishes to study and it ends when the researcher draws his or her final conclusions. The steps involved are not as distinct as they are in quantitative research. These steps are: identification of the phenomenon to be studied, identification of the participants, generation of hypotheses, data collection, data analysis, and interpretations and conclusions. (Fraenkel and Warren (2006, p. 433-5) Interviewing is the most important data collection technique for a qualitative researcher. References Amis, J. and Silk, M., 2008. The philosophy and politics of quality in qualitative organizational research. Organizational Research Methods 2008; 11; 456 originally published online Aug 13, 2007; DOI: 10.1177/1094428107300341. Carter, S. and Little, M., 2007. Justifying knowledge justifying method, taking action: epistemologies, methodologies, and methods in qualitative research. Qual Health Res 2007; 17; 1316. DOI: 10.1177/1049732307306927. Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y., 2005. “Introduction: the discipline and practice of qualitative research”. In Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (eds.). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Third Edition. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Fraenkel, J. and Wallen, N., 2006. How to design and evaluate research in education (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. Hollway, W. and Jefferson, T., 2005. Doing qualitative research differently: free association, narrative and the interview method. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Maynard, M., 2005. Methods, practice and epistemology: the debate about feminism and research. In Mary Maynard and June Purvis (eds.). Researching Women’s Lives from a Feminist Perspective. Oxon: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Meinert, R. et al., 2000. Social work: seeking relevancy in the twenty-first century. New York: The Haworth Press, Inc. pp. 45-50. Read More