A Study of the Access Women Have in Male Dominated Sports - Dissertation Example

Dissertation Proposal: A study of the access women have in male dominated sports ment of Problem Due to several challenges that face them, women today (particularly in the U.K) do not have easy access to sports dominated by male-defined standards and values, particularly physical contact sports such as football, rugby and boxing. As a result of this, the aim of women to benefit from, excel at, and fulfill their potential through the physical contact sport of their choice is severely hampered. 2) Background The challenges that hinder women from participating in male dominated sports are1 2.1. Female invisibility: discrimination in management, funding, media representation. 2.2. Discrimination in providing proper access to sporting facilities. 2.3. Body consciousness and Abhorrence of physical activity. 2.4. Attitudes and prejudices about sexuality. 2.5. Fears of personal safety, sexual harassment and abuse. 2.6. Parental and adult influence. 2.7. Stereotyping and prejudices about ethnicity. 2.8. Academic performance priority. 2.9. Lack of self-confidence 2.10.Lack of money 2.11.Lack of time 1= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 3. Justification A detailed explanation of each of the foregoing points is provided below. 3.1. Female invisibility: discrimination in management, funding, media representation At all levels, women’s sports and games attract less funding that men’s. Prize money at all major sports and games is vastly higher for men as compared to women. Women are under-represented in sports organisations. Girls miss out on involvement in sport because of lack of female role models. The four points mentioned above are hyper-inflated when it comes to women’s involvement in physical contact sports like football and rugby. Girls’ teams of such sports attract less sponsorship from local businesses because of the low revenue they generate, less spectators and low profile media coverage of their games. The media resorts to positive discrimination by focusing on the personal lives and appearances of sportswomen rather than their performance.2 3.2. Discrimination in providing proper access to sporting facilities. The role of schools is pivotal to development of women’s sports. The school system in the U.K displays inconsistent attitudes towards female involvement in sport, especially physical contact sports like football and rugby. Some schools allow girls to play rugby and football but others do not, as some teachers and administrators deem such sports as ‘unsuitable’ for girls.3 Sports halls and stadiums priortise male sport whereby men/boys get facilities at their preferred times, while women/girls have to make do with less convenient times. This direct discrimination is all the more distressing when given the fact that women/girls 2= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 3= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html have less leisure time than men. Women and girls have to contend with indirect discrimination at sports halls and stadiums in the form of barriers like improperly segregated toilets and changing rooms, poor lighting and inadequate transport and parking facilities. Sexist practices and legislation also restricts women and girls’ access to facilities. This direct discrimination is seen in many private member clubs that deny women full membership, deny them voting power, restrict their access to club facilities, give them much less playing time and bar them from weekend play and local tournaments.4 3.3. Body consciousness and Abhorrence of physical activity Girls and women are stereotyped as persons with sedentary lifestyle and associated with less physical activity as compared to males. The adolescence period of girls is 11-16 years. Girls tend to be affected by puberty earlier than boys. They experience pressures (e.g. body image, sexuality, sexual activity, being independent) that lead to a high drop in physical activity. The young adult age period (17-24 years) is usually a transition period from education to work, maybe even marriage and motherhood, which tends to make them avoid physical contact sports. The adulthood stage (25-39 years) involves women working at jobs, looking after homes and children, as well as having physical effects of pregnancy and childbirth. Pregnancy and childbirth leave women with less motivation, enthusiasm, time and money to participate in sports. By the time they cross the age of 30, the generally accepted age limit to competitively participate in physical activity sport is passed.5 4= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 5= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} Most women rugby, football players and boxers are stereotyped as ‘unfeminine’ and ill-advised to take up the sport.6 Research has shown that women are more self-conscious than men when taking part in sport and physical activity; for them body image is directly linked to physical activity: the more self-conscious they feel about their bodies, the less likely they are to participate in sport.7 3.4 Attitudes and prejudices about sexuality While men’s normative hetrosexual gender identities are confirmed by their involvement in sports, especially physical contact sports, women’s identity is challenged by sporting prowess.8 Girls and women are in the process of developing sexual identities as straight, lesbian or bisexual and they may dislike the attention that sports like football and rugby9 (considered by many women as unfeminine and a transgression of accepted gender norms10) bring. The subject is connected with lesbianism (also considered by many as basically unfeminine), resulting in the erroneous prejudiced conclusion that all sportswomen participating in physical contact sports must be lesbians. These attitudes and negative stereotype portrayal about sexuality stems from Homophobia (hatred and fear of homosexuals – lesbians, bisexuals, gay men), and Homo-negativism (fear from hetrosexuals of being perceived as homosexual).11 This point of view is strengthened by the type of clothing that some clubs insist women players wear (e.g. de-sexualised 6= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 7= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 8= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 9= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 10= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 11= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} sportswear which encourages the ‘masculine’ image).12 3.5. Fears of personal safety, sexual harassment and abuse. Recent research has found that Fears of sexual harassment, abuse and personal safety are major concerns that prompt girls and women to avoid leisure and sports facilities. There are also fears of personal safety on the streets, on public transport, and in and around sports venues. Added to this, sexual harassment and abuse by figures in authority like coaches, team managers and trainers is an increasing problem; the majority of perpetrators are men and women and girls are more frequent victims than boys and men. Abused sportswomen remain silent about their ordeal for fear of being accused of consent or inventing the whole sordid episode. These factors cause many women to drop out of sports in disgust rather than continue to endure such experiences.13 3.6. Parental and adult influence. Some ethnic minorities, especially Asians, do not encourage girls and young women to actively participate in sports, especially physical contact sports like football, rugby and boxing. Their religion and culture prohibits exposure of the female body unlike Western fashions that promote increasingly revealing clothes for women and girls. For example, Muslim girls and women observe Islamic law that prevents them from appearing in front of men dressed in ‘inappropriate’ attire (like shorts) and they even wear scarves to hide their hair. Adolescent females place greater emphasis on comments from parents, teachers, coaches and other adults than do adolescent males.14 12= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 13= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 14= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 3.7. Stereotyping and prejudices about ethnicity. Not all women are the same; they are not a homogenous group. What works for one community or ethnic group may not work for others. The gap between men and women’s participation in sports, especially physical contact sports like football and rugby, is greater amongst some minority ethnic groups than in the population as a whole. Prejudices and stereotyping of blacks and other minority ethnic people limits their opportunities to participate and excel in sports (e.g. Afro-Caribbean girls are good only in athletics and basketball, and, Asian girls don’t play football or rugby).15 3.8. Academic performance priority Participation in sports like rugby and football is primarily linked to favourable academic performances such as better graders, few disciplinary referrals, lower absenteeism and drop out rates, and increased commitment to higher education.16 Many girls and young women prefer to concentrate on studies with the aim to get good grades, thereby enhancing chances of securing scholarships for higher education with the ultimate target of getting highly paid jobs later in their lives. Such women do not like to devote valuable study time to lengthy hours of practicing physical contact sports like football and rugby.17 3.9.Lack of self-confidence Girls, on average, have less self-confidence than boys, and rate their sports performance ability more negatively than boys do. Girls also do not like competition (that is an 15= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 16= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 17= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} inherent part of sports); competition turns them off sports. This is an important reason why girls and women prefer non-contact sports like netball and aerobics, and find traditional team sports (especially physical contact sports like football and rugby) unpopular.18 3.10.Lack of money More women than men complain that lack of money is a crucial factor that prevents them from participating in certain sports such as football or rugby. Many cannot afford to pay high sports club membership fees, or pay for expensive sports clothing and equipment, or bear the recurring cost of transport expenses to and from the venues of the sports training centres. Black and other minority ethnic women are the most vulnerable in this context.19 3.11.Lack of time Practice, and lots of practice, is the foundation of all sports, especially physical contact sports like football and rugby. Girls and women tend to have less leisure time than men to devote to practice. Girls are more likely than their brothers to be expected to take care of siblings and do housework and cooking. Young women are expected to take on the greater share of burden at home towards housework, childcare and care of elderly or infirm relatives.20 18= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 19= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 20= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 4. Definitions and Assumptions. Prejudice is a performed and unsubstantiated judgement or opinion about individuals based on the group to which they belong. Prejudice is often based on stereotypes and may be favourable or unfavourable in nature. In modern usage however, prejudice denotes an unfavourable or hostile attitude towards other people based on their membership in another social or ethnic group (e.g. black people, lesbians). Stereotyping means classifying or grouping people into fixed mental images because they share a particular characteristic. Stereotyping is usually a negative caricature or inversion of some positive characteristic possessed by members of a group exaggerated to a point where it becomes repulsive or ridiculous. Stereotyping is often used to justify certain discriminatory behaviours. Discrimination refers to the action people take based on their prejudices on the basis of race, age, ethnicity, religion or gender without regard to individual merits; such action involves unfair and unjust treatment meted out by prejudiced individuals or organisations that have the power to commit such actions (e.g. apartheid in South Africa, the ‘Jewish problem’ in Nazi Germany). Direct Discrimination takes place when a person is treated worse than other people in similar actions (e.g. a man and a woman are paid differently for the same work).21 Indirect Discrimination occurs when certain rules that are supposed to be applied equally to everyone, affect people of a certain group to a greater degree (e.g. a rule 21= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} stipulating that a member of a football club must have a record of a minimum two years at player level in that club, whereas football for women has been introduced only six months earlier in the club). Positive Discrimination refers to discrimination based on gender (e.g. appointing a women as football commentator rather than a man because of her gender rather than her greater suitability). 5. Research Design 5.1 Number of women’s football clubs and registered players The number of women’s football clubs and registered players has been increasing in Britain from 1970; still, the numbers are very low as compared to some other countries. Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 1 shows the increasing number of women’s football clubs in Britain and Figure 2 depicts the increase in the number of registered players in the country.22 In 1993 Britain had 450 women’s football teams with 12,000 registered players. Comparatively in 1993, Norway, whose size is one-eighth that of Britain, had 44,000 registered women football players. Also in 1993, U.S.A had around 3.5 million registered women football players. In the 1997/8 season, there were 1000 girls’ football teams (with 20,000 players), and 700 women’s teams (with 14,000 players) in Britain. In 1997 Norway had 60,000 registered women’s football players, while the U.S.A had around 7 million registered women’s football players.23 5.2 Abhorrence to physical activity In the U.K, obesity has trebled since 1980, and continues to rise at an alarming rate. In the year 2005, it was found that 1 in 3 girls aged 11 in the U.K is overweight. In the same year it was found that 43% of adult women in Scotland participated in little or no sport at 22= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 23= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html all, 40% of girls have dropped out of sports activity by the time they reached 18, and 79% of girls aged 8-15 did not see being fit and healthy as important.24 5.3 Number of women spectators at women’s football matches The Donna Woodhouse (2002) survey of fans at women’s football matches in Britain during 1999 revealed important facts about the demographics of fans at England Female International Matches. Figure 3   New Den TheHawthorns Boundary Park Total Male 44.4 42.9 48.8 45.4 Female 55.6 57.1 51.2 54.6 White 94.7 97.5 99 97.1 African Caribbean 3.9 2.5 0.5 2.3 Asian 1.4 0 0.5 0.6 Other 0 0 0 0.0 14 years or under 8.7 11.6 15.1 11.8 15-20 years 11.7 13.6 9.1 11.5 21-30 years 24.3 19.4 15.9 19.8 31-40 years 34.5 29.9 30.5 31.7 41-50 years 13.8 20.0 19.7 17.8 51 years or over 7.0 5.5 9.4 7.4 Professional 16.5 20.1 15.3 17.3 Managerial/technical 22.6 14.6 21.1 19.4 Skilled non-manual 22.9 25.6 28.0 25.5 Skilled manual 16.1 15.6 22.2 17.9 Partly killed manual 15.1 18.1 13 15.5 Unskilled 6.8 6.0 0.4 4.4 24= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} The survey showed that almost half the spectators were male supporters; that adults were mainly white and a large number of female fans had a link with someone playing in the match.25 5.4 Problems faced by women spectators in stadiums The SNCCFR conducted a survey in 1990 of female football fans’ observations and experiences. 70% said that stadiums in the U.K are ‘women-unfriendly’ and football authorities could do more to attract female spectators. 60% wanted improvement in basic amenities like toilet facilities. 18.3% felt that an all-seater stadium would be safer and improve fan behaviour.26 5.5 Role of schools in encouraging female football players Figure 4 Age Encouraging Discouraging Neutral 16-21 46.0 19.3 34.7 22-26 19.2 34.2 46.6 27-31 7.4 54.3 38.3 32-36 4.7 55.8 39.5 37-41 4.2 45.8 50.0 The above excerpt from the Donna Woodhouse (2002) survey of 396 elite and other female football players at the Sir Norman Chester Centre found that while most younger players were encouraged to play at school, very few players, now in their mid-20s or older, had similar sorts of encouragement at the school level.27 5.6 Late start for English women’s rugby The Rugby Football Union for Women (RFUW) was formed only in 1983. England’s 25= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 26= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 27= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html first national women’s rugby team was formed in 1987, and its first Under-18 team in 1999.28 5.7 Discrimination in management, funding and media coverage of women’s sports A survey conducted by The Youth Sport Trust/Nike Girls in Sport found that in 2004/5, less than 5% of all sports coverage in the national and local media features women’s sports.29 In Italy, women’s football is regularly reported in “Gazetta Dello’Sport”, Italy’s national daily sports newspaper; in Britain, women’s football almost never makes it to the sports pages.30 In 2004/5 the five sports councils in the U.K funded 668 men (60%) and only 509 women (40%) through various programmes. In 2004, fewer than 25% of all representatives on sports boards and committees in the U.K were women.31 5.8 Personal safety concerns of British women players A Scottish survey conducted in 2005 found that 47% of girls found the area in which they lived intimidating; this influenced them to stay away from outdoor sports; some stereotyped groups were especially targetted (lesbians for their sexuality, black and other minority ethnic girls by racists).32 5.9 Low profile of British women boxers Women’s boxing was illegal in Britain until 1998. The first women’s professional boxing bout was held on November 25, 1998 when British Jane Couch took on Yugoslav Simona Lukic. In comparison, it is estimated that today there are more than 30,000 women in 120 28= http://www.scrum.com/womens/country/england/history.asp 29= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 30= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 31= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 32= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} countries who are boxing competitively.33 5.10 Lack of time for British sportswomen A 2005 Scottish survey found that almost 3.5 hours of a woman’s day is taken up with domestic work as compared to less than 2 hours for men.34 A survey conducted in 1992 by Jackie Woodhouse of the SNCCFR found that most British women football players were single (90.8%) and had no children (93.0%).35 5.11 Lack of self-confidence in women football players in Britain Figure 5   Elite players Other players Father 31.3 23.0 Mother 9.4 5.6 Brother 15.6 11.0 Both parents 12.5 4.0 Friends 3.1 17.1 Self-motivation 6.1 10.8 The above table is taken from the Donna Woodhouse (2002) survey of elite and other women football players in Britain about who was their biggest influence that inspired them to take up the sport. Self-motivation ranked just 6.1% for elite players and 10.8% for other players.36 6. Format of Findings 6.1. The small number of women’s football clubs and registered players is the overall consequence of all the factors cited under “Justification” which contribute towards 33= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/218581.stm 34= http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} 35= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 36= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html making sport, especially physical contact sport, unattractive to women. The excellent women’s participation in football in the U.S.A is reflected by the fact that they won the first FIFA Women’s World Championship (China 1991 – also noted for having a record number of women referees) and are current Olympic Champions.37 6.2. The statistics showing women opposed to physical activity highlights the causes mentioned in “Justification” (point 3.3). 6.3. & 6.4. The low number of women spectators at women’s football matches is a result of the female prejudice towards competitive physical contact sport to a large degree. To a lesser degree, discrimination in access to basic amenities in stadiums, and stereotyping of ethnic minorities (“Justification” points 3.2 and 3.7 respectively) make them stay away. Most fans that turn up do so as a gesture of loyalty to known players rather than to experience pure enjoyment and display support of the game. Four-Four-Two football magazine (Issue 5, January 1995) on comments of a female fan, claimed: “Margaret O’Dwyer’s friends think she’s mad. She’s one of a select band of Hartlepool fans. Margaret attends games with her sister Maureen. Their husbands go occasionally. ‘Colin thinks I’m a bit mad, but he’s really supportive,’ said Margaret.”38 6.5. The large number of schools discouraging girls to participate in physical contact sport is the result of causes mentioned in “Justification” (point 3.2). Britain has no role models in women’s football as other countries do (e.g. U.S. prominent role model Mia Hamm). Legislation in U.S.A requires females to have equal access to sports facilities especially in educational establishments. In the U.K, equal opportunities legislation has 37= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 38= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html tended to omit sport.39 6.6. English women’s rugby started only in the late 1990s, and women players are prejudiced against participation due to the causes outlined in “Justification” (point 3.3) 6.7. The facts pointing to discrimination in management, funding and media coverage is the result of the causes mentioned in “Justification” (point 3.1). Julie Welch, football journalist, broadcaster and writer said: “Women have been in space, women have run countries, but women football pundits there are none.”40 6.8. Personal safety concerns of women players is the result of the causes mentioned in “Justification” (point 3.5). 6.9. The relatively recent development of British women’s boxing is a reflection of the causes in “Justification” (points 3.1 and 3.3). British boxer Jane Couch’s fight was only possible because she won a titanic battle with the British Board of Control to get a licence to fight in Britain. Even now, leading boxing world figures like Frank Maloney (manager of male heavyweight champion Lennox Louis) describes women’s boxing matches as “freak shows” and is firmly opposed to the concept; Bob Arum, a leading boxing promoter said: “Men see it at a sideshow and women hate it. It has no future.”41 6.10. The figures showing that women in Britain have very less leisure time to indulge in sports, that too physical contact sports, is referred to in “Justification” (point 3.11). Gilliant Coulthard, England international footballer said: “Women footballers in the continent get released (from work) or are full time. It is a problem for us to get fitness levels up to those of the Americans for example. We have to break down those 39= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 40= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 41= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/218581.stm barriers.”42 6.11. The results depicting the British woman football player’s lack of self-confidence are the result of causes mentioned in “Justification” (point 3.9). 7. Limitations and Implications Empirical evidence provided is indicative of British women in general, and imply the way they think, behave and are influenced by several external factors. Only two limitations are visualised. The first limitation is that it concentrates more heavily on one women’s physical contact sport (football) and less on others (rugby and boxing). The second limitation is its near total concentration only on Britain women. 8. Conclusion Sport is good for health, good for self-esteem, good for teamwork and good for social skills. Sport is an uplifting part of our lives. The RFUW plans to improve the number of club sides it presently administers (150) in its Club League Competition.(9) British women boxers like Amanda Coulson, 23-year old light welterweight, hope to participate in the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008, but it is unlikely that will happen as the IOC wants to give the sport more time to develop.(10) The great success of the recent film “Bend it like Beckham” testifies that girls in U.K do want to play football and make a career of it. The England women’s football team has been set an ambitious target by the F.A: Win the Women’s World Cup in 2007! Women players of physical contact sports in Britain are no doubt constrained by several 42= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html 43= http://www.scrum.com/womens/country/england/history.asp 44= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/218581.stm deterrents but they need to persevere to break down these barriers. In the words of Kate Hoey, Labour MP for Vauxhall, London as she commented on the World Cup in U.S.A, 1994: “It is an oddity that as a woman I should love football. It is odd that others should think so. Perhaps it is because this tournament is in America, where so many millions of women play the game and where sport, generally, is not so exclusively a male domain.”45 45= http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html References used: Bennet Neil. 24th November 1998. Round One for Women’s Boxing. U.K. BBC news. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/218581.stm Scrum.com. No date. Women’s Rugby in England. U.K http://www.scrum.com/womens/country/england/history.asp Sportscotland. 2005. Making Women & Girls More Active. U.K. http://www.helpforclubs.org.uk/pages/download.aspx?id={4CC7A28A- 46A9-469B-A848-5F6AC358C615} Williams John. March 2002. Fact Sheet 5: Women & Football. U.K. Centre for the Sociology of Sport (University of Leicester). http://www.le.ac.uk/so/css/resources/factsheets/fs5.html Read More