The Development of Sport During the Twentieth Century - Essay Example

The Development of Sport during the Twentieth Century Has Seen a Pattern of Continuous Improvement both on and off of the Field of Play. Discuss the Accuracy of this Statement. The role of sports in contemporary society can hardly be overestimated. Sports fill in the stadiums and arenas with millions of people. Every well established newspaper has a separate section devoted to sports. Hours of weekends of children and grownups are occupied with discussions about teams and players that become a role model for a vast majority of boys. Sports directly influence the wellbeing of economies on a global level: "sports, indeed, constitute a major part of the US economy: the expenditures in 1998 for commercial sports totaled $17.7 billion and an additional $21.4 billion was spent on physical fitness, golf, bowling, and sports and recreation clubs." (Washington, R., Karen, D. 2001) It is amazing, that despite the enormous influence of sports on society, the theoretical development in this flied is underdeveloped. Before taking a deeper glance at social stratification and organizational context of sports, it is worth noting, that in this world there is nothing black and white and even though sports in general has a positive impact on society; drawbacks should and must be emphasized in order to eliminate the possibility of future mistakes. Despite the fact, that sports is widely considered to be a sphere free from prejudice and discrimination, this issue can hardly be taken for granted: "As the 20th century began, American girls and women who wished to participate in sport found themselves in a race that would prove to be more grueling than the actual marathons that females are running and setting records in today." (Motley, M., Lavine, M. 2001) Women were kept from participating in sports and in case if they were allowed, novelty and sex appeal were highlighted rather then athletic skills. This is evident from the names that were given to women's teams in the late 80th: "Balian Ice Cream Beauties", "Slapsie Maxie's Curvacious Cuties" (Motley, M., Lavine, M. 2001). The Fourteenth Amendment, the Equal Pay Act of 1963, and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, organizations like The National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS), in accordance with Kay Morgan (1999) the NAGWS "began in 1899 and continues today as one of six associations within the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance," did and do contribute to the improvement of the situation, however, even in the new millennium female population still only will be celebrating the true equality of opportunities in sports. In accordance with Feminist Majority Foundation and New Media Publishing, female population enjoys only 41% of athletic opportunities, 36% of athletic budget, and 32% of the recruitment budget (2005). Why is it so, that sports contributes to inequality between men and women If in this case the issue can be partially attributed to the very essence of sports and, maybe, the inborn, rather then acquired, difference in psychological traits and role models of the two genders, then why does the situation remain unchanged when it comes speaking about racial minorities In the 19th and 20-th centuries sports often took a shaped by social conflict: "early boxing epitomized a lower-class cultural style of raucous play that affirmed working-class virtues of prowess, bravery, honor, and physical culture--all of which brought condemnation from middle-class critics." (Pope, S. 2002) Communities, socialists, labor groups that were formed during at those times transformed sports into politically-charged picnics. Eventually, evolution of sports during the 20th century unified the group majorities and contributed to further segmentation of subordinate ones. White patriarchate determined the Where, When and How cultural minorities and women will participate in sports. Alice Coachman's victory in the high jump during the Olympiad of 1948 was the first time a black woman to win a gold medal and is considered to be one of the 10 most dramatic events in the history of sports. (10 Most Dramatic Moments, 1992) International sports competitions are usually portrayed as an act of unity and peace, moreover, they actually are, as the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City were after the attack of September 11th. (Rogge, G. 2003) But despite this fact, black population, which by nature is more inclined to succeed in sports activities, still remains a minority. Big sport involves big money. And where there is a lot of capital invested, there must be somebody who benefits from this on a large scale aside from sportsmen themselves. This, either this way or the other, eventually does lead to corruption and questioning of moral and ethical issues. A cross between a blood sucking lawyer and a commission-propelled salesman, the sports agent, is hardly able to stand up to a temptation by extra few thousands of dollars no one will ever know about. Sport agents have spoiled the idea of sports as an art for the sake of sport itself, as there is no athlete, who would be doing sports for money only, but in the 20th century they are paid as if this were the only reason. The size and the scope of sponsorship programs offered in professional sports by government are escalating. Sports teams within the last 50 years became a very expensive asset that is highly demanded; due to national increase in both population and sports many economists conclude that: "as many as 25 additional franchises could be created by the leagues given the financial performance of existing teams" (Swindell, D. Rosentraub, M.) At the same time, professional sports can hardly be considered a public good; the benefits produced are intangible and valued mostly by fans. Taxpayers, who not interested in sports, are not able to avoid expenditures related to financing of sports. As s result the present way of financing sports contributes to conflict of interests of those active in sports and those caring significantly less. Writing of journalists about sports dates back to the beginning of 19th century and has had its ups and downs. There is a distinction between sports writing - all metaphor and adjectives - and plain journalism that discusses the skeleton of the events taking place. The issue is rooted in creative writing, that "yearning for the urbane, witty and learned essay' looks at some sports with more passion than others." (Hutchinson, G. 1998) With the huge influence that sport journalism has on population interested in sports, personal attitude expressed in a writing or, perhaps, inability to realize the depth of the issue and the consequences involved if not writing neutral, might well be a way to manipulate the society and stimulate aggressiveness of fans holding different views. An emphasis that sport places on winning has recently come under a lot of criticism from the side of sport sociologists. In their opinion, the pressure of a stimulus to win influences both sportsmen and coaches and results in a tendency "to place greater emphasis on the end result of the game, i.e., the win, while placing less emphasis on the process of the game, i.e., the act of participating and having fun." (Crone, J. 1999) Consequently, the industry is transformed into a source to receive a financial reward and from a positive impact on the style of life leads to sports obsession, psychological crisis harmful for health. It is worth noting, that throughout the 20th century sport industry was a subject to explicit change and, finally, in the 21st century theoretical base is starting to develop that might eliminate all negative consequences of impact of sports thus transforming it into almost absolutely positive industry: "Consistent with a rich thirty-year tradition of ground-braking programs in sport education, the Academy is currently developing a first-of-its-kind, a Master of Sport Science degree in Sport Art. The MSS in Sport Art provides students with the opportunity to develop a personalized program whose main thrust is collection management." (The United States Sports Academy, 2002) The new Master program includes such fields as Sport Marketing, Sport Museums Management, the Role of Education in Sports, Administration and Finance. This next step might well signify a new civilized stage of development of sports industry. Even though throughout the essay the drawback of sports were emphasized, it would be unfair not to mention the positive impact on society that sports industry has. In general, sports influences on two major levels - individual and socialistic, that can further be divided into three major groups: psychological positive influence, physical, and, finally, economical. Todd Ryska conducted a research and arrived at the conclusion, that "adolescent athletes' task involvement had a positive main effect on scholastic, athletic, and job competence". (2002) The positive aspects can hardly be overestimated and talking about them would be in vain, as they are evident; the problem, I think, is in the following: any type of field, science, sports, art, or any other, if it is not based on thorough research and is not at least partially controlled, will result in negative consequences. Every integration process, every new theory has to be implemented wisely. Reference List: 'Women in Sports and the Olympics: Increasing Girls' and Women's Shorts Opportunities.' 2005. Feminist Majority Foundation and New Media Publishing, viewed 29 October, 2005 '10 Most Dramatic Moments.' 1992. Ebony, August, vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 90+. Crone, James A. 1999. 'Toward a Theory of Sport.' Journal of Sport Behavior, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 321+. Hutchinson, Garrie. 1998. 'Playing (and Writing) Our Own Games: Sportswriting and Sports Journalism in Australia.' Journal of Australian Studies , pp. 84. Morgan, Kay. 1999. 'NAGWS: 100 Years.' JOPERD--The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, vol.70, no.4, pp.19+. Motley, Mary L., and Mary E. Lavine. 2001. 'Century Marathon: A Race for Equality in Girls' and Women's Sports.' JOPERD--The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, vol. 72, no.5, pp. 56. Pope, Steven W. 1993. 'Negotiating the "Folk Highway" of the Nation: Sport, Public Culture and American Identity, 1870-1940.' Journal of Social History, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 327+. Rogge, Jacques. 2003. 'Olympian Efforts: How Ancient Games Shape the Modern World.' Harvard International Review, vol. 25, no. 1, pp.16+. Ryska, Todd A. 2002. 'The Effects of Athletic Identity and Motivation Goals on Global Competence Perceptions of Student-Athletes.' Child Study Journal, vol. 32, no. 2, pp.109+. Swindell, David, and Mark S. Rosentraub. 1998. 'Who Benefits from the Presence of Professional Sports Teams the Implications for Public Funding of Stadiums and Arenas.' Public Administration Review, vol.58, no. 1, pp.11+. 'The United States Sports Academy Develops New Master of Sport Science Degree Program.' 2002. Education, vol.122, no. 3, pp. 451+. Washington, Robert E., and David Karen. 2001. 'Sport and Society.' Annual Review of Sociology , pp. 187. Read More