Racial and Ethnicity Disparities in the United States - Coursework Example

Racial and Ethnicity Disparities in the United States

Week 4 Discussion Forum

Race is the concept used in dividing human beings in populations or groups based on genetic ancestry, or basically physical characteristics like color of the skin whereas ethnicity is a population group where members have either a common nationality or cultural traditions like common language. Ethnicity have shared cultural or traditional traits as well as common group history like religious traits, linguistic and in some instances we may find others sharing a common group but rather not common religion or language.

Comparatively, ethnicity is defined in geological terms, whether presumed or actual while racial groups result from genealogy that is shared due to genetic isolation. Taking Caucasian race as an example, an Irish anatomy Professor M.A MacConaill described their physical characteristics as light skin and eyes, thin lips and narrow noses (Kukathas, 2008). He further mentioned about their straight or wavy hair and they are said to have a low projection degree in alveolar bones that hold the teeth and mid-facial region projection. Any person with such physical characteristics is said to be a Caucasian. For example a Caucasian person in the US may share these characteristics with those from France or from any other part of the world. In most of the cases, a person belongs only to one race i.e. unitary, but that person may claim a membership in ethnic group or many groups (Alba, 2005). For instance, a case of the US president Barrack Obama, he is black in race but his mother is a Caucasian. On the other hand, a person can be ethnically French and a German if he or she has lived in the two ethnic groups.

Race and ethnicity play a role in social determinants of health, either positively or negatively as this is determined by some factors. Often, conflicts between different ethnic and racial groups across the globe have existed and resulted to discouraging results like destruction of social amenities that end up affecting the health conditions in any given nation. Although presently, most of these conflicts have reduced significantly with a bigger proportion compared to the 20th century or early centuries (Reagan & Salsberry, 2005).

According to my opinion, a person’s race provides more information about a person as compared to ethnicity. This is mostly seen since as we know a person never choose her race but rather, it is assigned by the society especially based on the physical characteristics of an individual. On the other hand, ethnicity is self-identified. For instance, any person may learn any language, social norms as well as customs and may get assimilated into any culture so as to belong to any ethnic group (Barr, 2008). For example a person may be born to French parents but brought up by Kwa language speakers from West Africa. As Geneticist Luca Cavallies Sforza argued, neither race nor ethnicity have genetic bases and can never be scientifically be defined. He further argued that human beings have great levels of genetic unity. He argued that most genetic differences are between individuals but rather not groups. This therefore indicates that neither ethnicity nor race that determines an individual’s health as these are just differences of skin color (Sewell, 2009).

Patients are preferred for their racial or ethnic concordant physicians. One study suggested that patients prefer ethnic concordant doctor because of the language and emphatic treatment (Garcia, 2003). Furthermore, black and Hispanic Americans may seek services from doctors of their own race because of language and personal preference but not even because of the accessibility (Saha, 2000). There is an evidence that patient physician race concordant is correlated to better ratings of care among grown-ups care patients. The race concordance is also associated with better communication between the doctor and the patient and a result, there is improved health status.

The illustrations below indicate social inequality in the United States. The population that live in the slums mostly comprise of the African Americans but not the whites.

Figure A

Figure B

Figure C

Quite a number of low income earners live in poverty areas as indicated by figure A whereas others are high income earners and therefore end up leaving in huge mansions as illustrated in figures B and C above. It is clear that most of the slums in the country are occupied by either Latinos or black Americans while most of the mansions are occupied by the whites in the country.

Week 5 Discussion Forum

Socioeconomic status is measured as an amalgamation of income, education and occupation. Commonly, it is conceptualized as social standing or individual class or group class. A close examination of socioeconomic status gradient or variable brings about inequality in accessing or even distributing of the resources. Social economic status affects our society in different ways. For instance, low social economic status being characterized by lower education, poor health and poverty level affects our society at the end of the day (Barr, 2008).

Socioeconomic status and race and ethnicity are intertwined. Research has revealed that ethnicity and race in stratification terms often determine an individual’s socioeconomic status. We may find communities being segregated due to factors like social economic status, ethnicity and race, though this is mostly common in developing countries with poor health status as well as minimal number of educated. Regular prejudices against ethnic minors in the US create more barriers in health services offered regardless of the class. One-fifth of American woman of Asian descent from well off backgrounds did not have a pap spread over three years (Ajakaiye & Mwabu, 2012). Those from low SES have more risk of not having early uncovering test yearly. Socioeconomic status as well as race and ethnicity are associated with procedures that can be avoided, avoidable hospitalization and diseases that are untreated. Low weights at birth can be related to quite a number of health outcomes, as it has been allied with minimal social economic status and ethnic and low status. It has been observed that children in elevated poverty areas are more probable to being exposed to tobacco or even alcohol advertisements and distribution of the drugs (Siegrist & Marmot, 2004). They have also been observed with antisocial conduct. It is found that the African Americans are more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia as compared to the Caucasians in the lower poverty regions.

The Africans Americans are at a higher risk of getting involuntary psychiatric commitment as compared to any other group, These Africans Americans as well as Latinos in low poverty regions become more likely to being referred for obligation by law enforcing official as compared to other racial groups. The unemployment level for African Americans is two times to the number of Caucasian Americans (Anderson, Bulatao & Cohen, 2004). African American men that work for full time earn about 72% of an average earning compared to the Caucasian men as well as 85% of the Caucasian females. African Americans as well as Latinos are more probable to attend high poverty schools as compared to the Asian Americans as well as Caucasians. From the 2005 data, it was found that the highest number of high school dropouts was Latinos; African Americans followed the lot and then Americans Indian or Alaska citizens (Gabriel, 2016).

For the sake of the future, something can be done to prevent such acts of inequality from occurring. Contribute to the research body on the barriers in the society that ethnicity/racial minors have experienced, especially those in the lower socioeconomic status, and the effect of the barriers on health as well as wellbeing. Reporting should be done to participant characteristics related to the socioeconomic status. Models and socioeconomic measures have to be developed in order to reflect the social and chronological complexities of communities of race (Singh-Manoux &Marmot, 2005). Each should support legislation and policies that investigate and work in elimination of socioeconomic inequalities.

Week 6 Discussion Forum

Infant mortality basically refers to the deaths of young children, those less than a year of age. This is measured by the infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of children under a year old per 1000 live births. In 2004, the US data included: Number of infant deaths: 23,440, Deaths per 100,000 live births: 596.1. The leading causes of infant deaths in the country include inborn malformations, deformations as well as chromosomal deformations, disorders that are related to short development and little birth weight and, abrupt newborn death syndrome (Sewell, 2009).

In the USA, the infant mortality rates have been decreasing significantly with time. In 2014, the rate decreased by 2.3% to 582 infant deaths per 100000 live births. In around 1850s, the rate in the US had been estimated at 216.8 per 1000 infants born by whites and 340.0 per 1000 babies born for the African Americans (Gabriel, 2016). These rates have significantly reduced in the modern times. This is due to the current developments and improvements in the health care, medical advances and technology. The rates have declined drastically from 20 deaths in the 1970s to 6.9 deaths in 2003; this is per every 1000 live birth.

The US government is taking a lot of responsibilities in succumbing poor birth outcomes within the nation. The government is using coordinating with the state department of health and mental hygiene and other experts to incorporate the latest evidence to be used in reducing the infant mortality and they shall still use new research in support of the health before conception, during pregnancy and even after giving birth. Primary health care in medical home can lead to improvement in the mothers’ health as well as father long before conception. Obstetric care has helped to avoid or manage appropriately obstetric complications like infections or eclampsia. It has also helped in pregnancy successfully for chronically ill ladies. Substance abuse treatment or even through education regarding the dangers of drug abuse helps in improving the health of both the mother and the fetus. Mothers smoking termination programs are effective and help in improving the birth outcomes (Kristenson, 2004). Appropriate spacing of the pregnancies and proper plans lead to reduced number of accidental pregnancies as this unintended pregnancy lead to the proper care being given to the unborn and even after its birth.

Social, psychological or physical environment where a baby is raised can adversely affect the infants; there is more exposure to the existing risks like from poverty, exposure to risk of getting into drug abuse or any other odd that parents in poverty areas undergo through. A campaign to educate the community is crucial to disseminate key information in inspiring the nation in finding medical homes and seek drug treatment when need arises, quit smoking habits and start engaging in high impacts area for development. Quality steps that brings about implementing and monitoring the crucial checklist set aside to ascertain the quality of health issues in the country. The end results will be improved rates of birth outcomes that are positive within the country (Pini & Bhopal, 2015). The country’s medical department should report annually on the progress in the planned key targeted geographical areas in the country. Neural functioning obviously is high in proper areas with adequate and quality health facilities as compared to areas affected by poverty which consequently lead to newborns receiving low quality services and overall low neural development.

There exist disparities in health care units which is still unrecognized but otherwise, the public is supposed to be aware of as a start point of its reduction. Ethnic and racial disparities occurring in health care even when insurance status, age, and income as well as conditions severity are comparable. The number of deaths in ethnic and racial minorities than in whites being higher due to heart diseases, cancer and diabetes, then this is the main reason to stress that these disparities are inacceptable. The divergence in health care may occur in context of wider historic and current economic and social inequality and constant ethnic and racial discrimination in many sectors of the life of the Americans (Barr, 2008). Other many sources that contribute to these ethnic and racial disparities that include the systems as a whole, health care managers and health care providers. Ethnic and racial minority patients are more likely as compared to white patients refusing treatment services, though the differences of refusal rates are low. Marginal patients’ refusal does not comprehensively explain health care differences.

Due to the conscious or rather unconscious of racial bias, doctors would fail to offer same services to the Latinos and African Americans than what they can do for the whites in the same nation. Patient’s ethnic or racial group have a strong influence on what the doctor is to reason and the recommendations that override the impacts of diagnosis as well as ill severity. As to our belief, most doctors work hard to keep their work off bias but social psychological research have shown that this may occur unintentionally due to certain factors (Barr, 2008). Some of these factors may include work pressure that boosts the impacts of racial or gender stereotypes. In that research, doctors were unlikely to refer a Latino or African American woman for cardiac catheterization as compared to the white women.

Week 7 Discussion Forum

Part 1

Aversion bias is the situation where negative evaluations of ethnic or racial minorities are realized from persistent dodging of interaction with other ethnic and racial groups. People who act in aversively racial manner may admit egalitarian beliefs and will often refute their racially motivated acts, yet they vary their behavior when it comes to dealing with a minority group member. In witnessed an instance an African American was denied a chance to play in my local team by the coach who claimed that the team had enough players; instead a White player was fixed without delay. This got me agitated and I sought to reason with the coach who declined my plea to refrain from his bias. From the experience, aversive racists have egalitarian values, where their biases are never manifested in circumstances where they are obvious norms of wrong and right.

We find that approximate 90% of the Whites have an intrinsic racial bias for the African Americans as compared to other minority races. It is also common for young black youths to be shot and murdered by the police, which has stirred a huge public debate concerning the racial situation in the US; it is an indicator that racial inequality is yet to be solved. In this regard, there is need for nationwide conversation about race where an agreement should be reached on the remedies and actions to be instigated for racists (Willie, 2003).

Explicit racists demonstrate a mindful acknowledgement of racist beliefs and attitudes unlike implicit racists who tend to have an unconscious bias. In my understanding, the findings that aversive racists are color-blind is not realistic and can be seen as a strategy to avoid the integrity of their actions. Yale professor John Dovidio argues that White have the tendency of “pretending they don’t see race” and that such behavior has had detrimental implications on the life and career of many black people (Pearson, Dovidio, & Gaertner, 2009).

Part 2

Regardless of racial and ethnic differences, it is important to note that human race share the same characteristics and deserve the preservation of their dignity. Implicatively, it is imprudent to treat an individual as a lesser person as it demeans our nature as social beings. History can teach us many lessons concerning the need for equality and humane treatment, especially on the stance towards the racially minority. The struggle for recognition and inclusion of African Americans in the perceived democracy has taken centuries and, still, racism is a threat to the American society. History can also teach us that people have the same capacity irrespective of their ethnical or racial belonging as it can be seen through the contribution of a number of African Americans including the current president. Therefore, I believe that it is time that each one of us becomes aware that discrimination does not only affect the recipient but it also lowers the overall dignity of the human race.

Week 8 Discussion Forum

The article by Rose and Hatzenbuehler (2009) focuses on creating a connection between poverty, income inequality and the quality of an individual’s health. According to the authors, poverty and income inequality are the primary factors leading to a difference in the quality of health in the society. With the argument that the “poverty and illness are inseparable”, the authors acknowledge that access to healthcare has often been subject to the financial capacity of the individual. In addition, poverty can be seen as a health risk factor considering that individuals living below the poverty line are often prone to living conditions and lifestyle that pose a direct threat to their wellbeing. Income is generally the most applied factor in the separation of social classes, even in cosmopolitan societies such as the United States (Rose & Hatzenbuehler, 2009). However, it is important to note that there is disconnect between the percentages of people of a particular race that are in given social classes. For instance, a larger percentage of the White belong to the highest social class compared to the minorities, especially the Black. This argument forms the basics in understanding the prevailing health disparities in the United States.

The authors point out the existence of racial factors that keep the racially minority in consistent poverty status where inequality in the distribution of opportunities for education and employment being leading factors. In a bid to maintain the perceived status quo, the minorities are subjected to generic poverty and poor living conditions, which is worsened by low income. As a result of poverty, people in the minority groups are exposed to various risks and health hazards. For instance, they do not find adequate time to exercise as their jobs absorb the largest share of their total time, which leads to health risks such as obesity. When they fall ill due to the lack of proper sanitation they may denied access to healthcare as they do not have the capacity to finance their bills. Government initiated programs focusing on the improvement of access to healthcare do not include a significant fraction of low-income earners as they are not eligible. This consideration leads the authors to conclude that the there is a connection between the income of the individual and the quality of their health, which has also been mentioned and discussed extensively by Barr (2014).