Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Resettlement of Asylum Seekers - Literature review Example

Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Resettlement of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Australian Society Name Institution Date Introduction The United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on Refugee status and stateless persons was held in Geneva. It led to the treaty called “Convection Relating to the Status of Refugees of 28 July 1951”. The international treaty establishes the definition of a refugee and their rights. The major element of the legal status of refugees is the ‘non-refoulement’ which prohibits forceful return of people to the country where they have reason to fear prosecution (UN, 2001). This leads to protection of refugees from being deported to home country which is dangerous. United Nations 1951 convection defines a refugee as a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of particular social group or political opinion is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the persecution of that country, or who, not having nationality and being outside the country of former habitual residence, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it ( Horst, 2006). An asylum seeker is a person who has fled his own country and tenders his application to another country’s government for protection as a refugee. An asylum seeker is a refugee who has not met the criteria of 1951 convection and awaits his case to be determined by the authorities of the host country (McMaster, 2001). An asylum seeker claims to be a refugee but he is yet to be evaluated using the criteria outline in the 1951 convection as pertaining to the status of a refugee. The word refugee was first recorded as a term to refer to the arrival of Calvinists from the Catholic ruled Low Countries into France in 1573. At this particular time refugees were usually fleeing religious persecution and rulers generally viewed any unexpected increase in population as an asset rather than a drain (Korac, 2003). In the years since the introduction of passports during the First World War, there has been an increasing bureaucratic control over borders (McMaster, 2001). Developed countries are often faced with dilemma: how to respect their humanitarian commitment at the same time maintain sovereignty and control over state borders (Hardy, 1994). Nevertheless, in abidance with the 1951 convection, many of the developed countries have been providing asylum to asylum seekers on the humanitarian basis. According to UNHCR (2001) humanitarian program in 2006, 71,700 refugees were admitted by 15 countries of resettlement with the largest number being resettled in the United States of America, Australia, Canada, Sweden, Norway and New Zealand respectively. Over the past 15years humanitarian program in Australia has admitted approximately 13,000 people annually (Colic-Peisker, 2009). Whereas refugees have been a persistent and accepted part of human migration for some centuries, nation-state development and fixed borders in the 19th century made countries to avoid refugees and turn them into international pariahs. In the past, groups of people facing racial or religious persecution would usually move to a more tolerant region (McMaster, 2003). Presently, political persecution is a key cause of out-migration of refugees and international goal is to repatriate refugees as soon as the condition in their home country becomes stable (Farrelly, 2009). There are approximately 11 to 12 million refugees in the world today. Many countries in the world have been affected by the refugee experience as either host to, or producer of, refugees or both (UN, 2001). There has been dramatic upsurge since the mid-1970s when there were less than three million refugees globally. The Balkan conflicts contributed to the increase in refugees in 1992 to nearly 18 million. The elapse of regimes and the Cold War that kept social order led to the dissolution of countries and changes in politics that occasioned to unbridled persecution and huge increase in the number of refugees. The largest source countries for refugees in the world include Iraq, Afghanistan, Sudan, Sierra Leone; some of the countries hosting the most refugees include Syria, Iran, Jordan, Pakistan and Guinea. Close to 70 percent of the world refugee population is in the Middle East and Africa (Colic-Peisker, 2009). Tilbury & Peisker (2006) explain that asylum seekers who come to Australian mainland and seek for protection are evaluated through the refugee status determination system that is stipulated in the Migration Act. The Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC), through this system, makes the initial evaluation as to whether the applicant meets the criteria for refugee status and whether they should be given a protection visa (Farrelly, 2009). If an asylum seeker is denied a protection visa by DIAC, they are accessible Refugee Review Tribunal (RRT), independent merit review, or in special the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT). In circumstances that are limited, they can seek review by the judicial by the Federal Magistrates Court or the Federal Court of decisions made by the AAT or RRT. The commission has expressed concerns concerning refugee status determination system in Australia, as it is applicable to child asylum seekers, in the report of national inquiry into children in immigration detention (Tilbury & Peisker, 2006). Australia is among the first countries in the world to implement a legal policy of universal detention for asylum seekers who are unauthorized from arrival to departure or until they are issued with a visa. Asylum seekers entering Australia unlawfully are given Temporary Protection Visa, if they cross the initial threshold of compliance interview successfully, if not, they are deported back to their country immediately. According to Tilbury & Peisker (2006) refugees in Australia who are granted Temporary Protection Visa (TPV) have their settlement clouded in uncertainty and disadvantage. TPV is authorized by the government of Australia in its refugee policy for asylum seekers who arrive unauthorized and are subsequently assessed by the Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA) to be refugees (McMaster, 2003). Australia is the only country to apply temporary protection status to refugees who have been through full asylum system and who have been recognized as genuinely in need of protection for 1951 Refugee Convection reason(UN, 2001). This means that persons with TPV will not have access to Centre-link Special Benefit nor are they eligible for welfare benefits such as sick allowance, parenting allowance, youth allowance and deplorably, they are excluded from university education as they are subject to full international student fees (Tilbury & Peisker, 2006). It is ironical that on one hand they are perceived to be in need of protection and on the other hand they are viewed as abusers who exploit the system and can be tolerated to a certain extent (Farrelly, 2009). The opposition in Australia asserts that there has been an influx of refugees in the past year after Rudd’s government ended a policy of detaining asylum seekers in island camps in third countries whereas their claims are processed. The opposition leader claims that policy changes have undermined the strength and integrity of the border protection. Since last year 41 boats have arrived in Australia carrying 2,012 people, compared with an average of three boats in the period between 2002 and 2008 as stated by the opposition leader (Farrelly, 2009). Successful settlement is underpinned with a spirit of hospitality whereby refugees are made to feel welcomed into a community. It entails the wider community making adaptations to accommodate the refugees (Lester, 2005). Successful settlement is backed by institutional philosophies and government policies that enable incorporation of programs that are refugee sensitive into all mainstream service institutions; after all, refugees are taxpayers and residents and therefore are legitimate clients of mainstream service providers (Colic-Peisker, 2009). Community sector projects funded by the government are vital for the successful settlement of resettled refugees. Links development between host community and newly arrived refugees is one of the accomplishments towards successful settlement. This should involve volunteers who are selected, monitored, supported and trained throughout the period they are involved with the refugees. Most of the people who are in need of protection in Australia are resettled from other countries through offshore humanitarian resettlement program. In the period from 2009 to 2010, 67% of visas were granted to people offshore through the offshore humanitarian resettlement program (Tilbury & Peisker, 2006). Integration in the Australian Society: Problems faced by the Refugees and Asylum Seekers In a research conducted in Western Australia among refugee population that included black Africans, Yugoslavs and people from the Middle East, it was established job satisfaction, ample health status, social support, Australia network acculturation and adaptation formed a vital part of successful settlement in Australia (Tilbury and Coli-Peisker, 2007). For many of the respondents finding employment was a big milestone in the settlement process. There was high correlation between overall life satisfaction and job satisfaction, that is, people who were contented will their financial situation were very likely to declare they had satisfaction with settlement (Colic-Peisker, 2002). Tilbury and Coli-Peisker (2007), in their study about integration of the refugees in the labor market identified two main approaches towards theorizing migrant employment outcomes. The neoclassical approach which relies on competitive market theory, which holds that the market is blind to race, caste, gender or everything else than maximization of profit; in other words, if people have skills that market requires, they will definitely be hired (McMaster, 2006). Consequently, unemployment and underemployment of refugees and asylum seekers is mainly due to their lack of local experience in the labor market, as well as lack of appropriate skills, language and skills for job seeking. In contrast to neoclassical approach, the critical approach which focuses on personal prejudice, structural and consequent discrimination of refugees and asylum seekers experience in the host country (Colic-Peisker, 2009). For instance, this approach views religion, language and accent of refugees as the main barriers to employment. Colic-Peisker (2002) asserts that coming from a non-English speaking background, refugees come to live in another language and experience many difficulties hence practical integration, that is, finding a job is inevitable connected with emotional integration of feeling accommodated. The study done by Colic-Peisker in 2002 with Croatian migrants found that those migrants who arrived in the 1960s are still affected by the language after living in decades in Australia and as a result most of them were still locked into the most unpleasant, low status and poorly paid jobs. As explained by Farrelly (2009) the main underlying principle is that in integration is making refugees and asylum seekers feel accepted in the society in a natural manner, not necessarily in a mechanical way. NGOs and government should work collaboratively to bring up the settlement programs which focus on the survival needs of refugee in foreign land such as employment, skills, language, at the same time providing an opportunity to get along in local neighborhood (Tilbury & Peisker, 2003). From this point of view, it is undeniable that NGOs is the main player in delivering settlement services because of its innovative approaches, human rights based approaches and its capacity to work collaboratively with other actors. Different programs and policies can be found on international and national level in terms of refugee resettlement, for instance, in numerous European countries refugees are initially housed in a reception centre whereby, apart from their daily needs, they get orientation classes on culture and language. In London and France, refugees are expected to stay in such centers for six or three months respectively. In the reception program in France and London the resources are made available for a relatively short period after arrival without planning for settlement thereafter. In Germany, their stay can be anywhere close to two to twelve weeks. Nevertheless in the United States of America and Canada, refugees are instantly transferred to their place of residence and settlement services are established locally which provides them with an opportunity to interact with the neighborhood and integrate into the society. In Italy, owing to the underdeveloped welfare system and social protection, the assistance from government is little as it is assumed that that in need will be primarily assisted by self help systems that are established in refugee networks (Kinzie, 2006). Role of the media The role of media in helping shape public opinion in relation to asylum seekers and refugees and many issues has been debated. The media has a crucial role on the lives of asylum seekers refugees, and migrants and their acceptance by the society and their degree of integration into the society (Korac, 2003). Media reporting concerning asylum seekers has been characterized by provocative and inaccurate use of language to describe those entering the country to seek asylum (McMaster, 2001). Labels were pointed out used to make reference to persons seeking refugee in Britain and derogatory and meaningless terms such as ‘asylum cheat’ and ‘illegal refugee’ were included. Refugees and asylum seekers feel ashamed, alienated and occasionally threatened owing to the overwhelming negative media coverage of asylum (Lester, 2005). According to Kinzie (2006) many of the victims reported direct experience of abuse, aggression, or prejudice from service providers or neighbors which they directly attributed in the manner in which the media informs public opinion. The media should try as much as possible to portray refugees and asylum seekers in ways that are less stereotypical, in particular more images of children and women in their reports (Lester, 2005). The media should put into consideration the value of recruiting journalists who are exiled who besides their professional experience as journalists, would give specific insight into issue pertaining to the circumstances and countries from which they have fled. This needs proactive action by the media to provide opportunities for refugee journalists and for the media to utilize the connections and networks with refugees that can be availed by the NGOs (McMaster, 2006). Role of NGOs in resettlement Article 71 of United Nations charter emphasizes the integral and legitimate roles played by NGOs as part of the refugee protection system in its implementation as well as assisting, negotiating, monitoring, reporting, analyzing, lobbying or advocating (UN, 2001). NGOs have played an important role in making people be aware that refugees and asylum seekers also have not only under the Refugee Convection but also under international human rights and humanitarian law (Lester, 2005). In countries such as United Kingdom, Australia and Denmark, NGOs are relatively centralized. In London many NGOs operate under the umbrella of British Refuge Council and have membership of more than 100 organizations (UN, 2001). Denmark has restricted it to two ‘unitary corporation’, that is, the Danish Refuge Council and the Red Cross (Lester, 2005). The former is responsible for determination and settlement with the budget of around $100 million and the latter with the responsibility of carrying out all reception services and in some or other instances states have distanced themselves from their responsibilities, preferring to fund NGOs as service providers at lower cost than state would be able to deliver (Hardy, 1994). NGOs and Government are involved in a complex relationship and interaction applying both collaboration and conflict, for instance, NGOs often adopt a confrontation stance in order to pressurize the government to change policies, at the same time they rely on government funding and there exist many contradictions and tension in the way NGOs and Government function (Lester, 2005). However, NGOs working with refugees and asylum seekers largely depend on depend on the government due to existing policies/procedure of the country and most importantly because of their dependency on government on funding (Tilbury & Peisker, 2006). In addition to the role of advocating and lobbying the rights of asylum seekers and refugees in a global scenario, there are other bigger responsibilities placed on NGOs sector, such as facilitating the settlement of growing number of refugee and enhancing their participation in new societies, locally and nationally (Farrelly, 2009). Rationale of the research NGOs plays very important role in striving to achieve adequate and effective standards of law, policy, policy and practice. As mentioned earlier, many studies have been conducted on policies and interventions aspects of state level to integrate the refugees and asylum seekers. Concurrently, lot of studies have been conducted to understand the experience of Refugees in terms of hardship of finding jobs, language barrier, cultural differences, but very little is known about the experiences of NGOs in terms of service delivery, their capacity and initiatives to assist refugee settle in Australia with or without collaborative support of government. There is need for more research that connects plight of refugees and asylum seekers and NGOs intervention in a local or national level. The experiences of NGOs can shed light into many uncovered issues that refugees and asylum seekers are facing in prevailing context which might still be unknown to the larger population. The research question As it has been seen the role the NGOs in the resettlement is inevitable and as the challenge posed by asylum seekers and refugees continue to be reviewed, it will be important to have an in-depth evaluation of the role of NGOs and the services that they offer to asylum seekers and refugees towards resettlement, what are the shortcomings and gaps in the services provided, what new initiatives could assist asylum seekers and refugees in successful settlement in Australia? References Colic-Peisker, V. (2002). Croatians in Western Australia: migration, language and class. Journal of Sociology, 38(2), 149-166. Colic-Peisker, V. (2009). Visibility, settlement success and life satisfaction in three refugee communities in Australia. Ethnicities, 9(2), 175-199. Farrelly, S. (2009). Complementary Protection in Australia: Filling the Gap in the Protection of Asylum Seekers. Hardy, C. (1994). Underorganized Interorganizational Domains: The Case of Refugee Systems. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 30(3), 278-296 Horst, C. (2006). INTRODUCTION: Refugee Livelihoods: Continuity and Transformations: Refugee Livelihoods: Continuity and Transformations. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 25(2), 6-22. Kinzie, J. D. (2006). Immigrants and Refugees: The Psychiatric Perspective. Transcultural Psychiatry, 43(4), 577-591. Korac, M. (2003). Integration and How We Facilitate it: A Comparative Study of the Settlement Experiences of Refugees in Italy and the Netherlands. Sociology, 37(1), 51-68. Lester, E. (2005). A Place at the table: The Role of NGOS in Refugee Protection: International Advocacy and Policy-Making. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 24(2), 125-142. McMaster, D. (2001). Asylum seekers: Australia's response to refugees. Melbourne, Vic: Melbourne University Press. McMaster, D. (2006). RESETTLED REFUGEES: Temporary Protection Visas: Obstructing Refugee Livelihoods: Temporary Protection Visas: Obstructing Refugee Livelihoods. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 25(2), 135-145. Tilbury, F., & Peisker, V. C. (2003). Active” and “Passive” Resettlement: The Influence of Support Services and Refugees' own Resources on Resettlement Style. International Migration, 41(5), 61-91. Tilbury, F & Peisker, V.C (2006). Employment Niches for Recent Refugees: Segmented Labour Market in Twenty-first Century Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(2), 203 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugee. (2001). Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/3b66c2aa10.html Read More

 

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