Anomie and Social Controls in Social Controls - Essay Example

Running Head: ANOMIE AND SOCIAL CONTROLS Anomie and Social Controls [The Writer’s Name] [The name of the Institution] Anomie and Social Controls In the nineteenth century, as an attempt to understand the massive social and economic changes that had been weeping across Western Europe in the seventeenth, eighteen, and nineteenth centuries, sociology was developed as an autonomous subject, separate from philosophy and economics. With theories, sociology continues profoundly influence the way to explain why social phenomena have the characteristics they have, provides ideas for an analysis of complex social processes and aids in the construction of models of how social structures and social systems operate. Durkheim argued that society had not reached organic solidarity and that society was in a transitional stage. The problem of this transitional stage was 'anomie'. Anomie is widespread because the development of organic solidarity lags behind the growth of the division of labour. Old forms of moral regulation have lost their authority, but new forms are not yet fully developed. Thus Durkheim believed that the specialized division of labour and the rapid expansion of industrial society contained threats to social solidarity. They tended to produce a situation of 'anomie', which, literally translated, means normlessness. Anomie means literally 'without norms' a condition of society or of personal relation to society, which there exists little consensus, a lack of certainty on goals, and a loss of effectiveness in the normative and moral framework, which regulates collective and individual life. Anomie is present when social controls are weak, when the moral obligations, which constrain individuals and regulate their behaviour, are not strong enough to function effectively. Durkheim saw a number of indications of anomie in late-nineteenth-century industrial society, in particular high rates of suicide, marital break-up and industrial conflict. Such behaviour indicates a breakdown of normative control. The notion of anomie can be understood only against the background of the 'normal' or 'natural' conditions from which it is held to be a pathological deviation. A pathological deviation occurs if something doesn't fulfil a vital function, which is needed for society. In Durkheim's writings the concept of anomie appears prominently in the 'Division of Labour' and 'Suicide'. Durkheim argues that people can be happy only when their wants are proportionate to their means. Left to themselves, human desires are boundless and this fact of human nature, together with necessarily limited resources, creates great unhappiness. The argument is thus further developed in his discussion of suicide where anomie is one of the four causes of suicide identified in Durkheim's classic study. Durkheim saw suicide as one of the most private acts an individual could perform, and were it therefore possible to explain that action in terms of society, his holistic approach to sociological analysis would stand. Unlike most others before him who believed that influences such as inherited mental disorder are of paramount importance in causing suicide, Durkheim chose to look instead at suicide purely as a social fact, rather that the act of an individual. Anomic suicide has to do with individuals who are unable to integrate into a social group, perhaps because there is a general breakdown in social norms and guidelines to behaviour. In creating 'uniquely sociological' form of analysis, Durkheim has been criticised by writers such as Lukes, who believe that in examining suicide, it should be seen that there is a interlinking relationship between societal and individual factors. Other writers suggest that Durkheim is also incorrect in his attempts to use information on groups of people to make assumptions about the rest of the society. Further, it has been argued that Durkheim failed to realise that anomie can itself be seen as a norm, rather than a state of normlessness. His model of norms was that of external and constraining rules curbing the individual's limitless desires. He did not picture these desires as themselves resulting from social or cultural influences, or envisage that there could be internally accepted norms, to which men willingly conform, with results that are socially anarchic and psychologically harmful. Durkheim has been criticised more generally in that he seems to justify the status quo e.g. in the distinction between what is normal and pathological. But this distinction can often be used to legitimate what is the case. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear how his framework leads to the conclusions he infers. Many have argued that Durkheim is using his framework to justify his own political views. As reformulated by Merton, anomie becomes a concept used in the analysis of deviance. In his classic essay on 'Social Structure and Anomie' he stressed that in most Western societies (he particularly focused on American society), it is generally taken for granted that everyone must succeed in material wealth. Hard work and determination should be the means by which this success is achieved. However, some individuals do not have access to or opportunities for this progress and there is no consensus on the means by which this is obtained, and so there exists extreme pressure to succeed no matter what. The conflict between means and success leads to deviant behaviour and criminal activities and so these are seen as inherent in prosperity and happiness. Norms and values remain the basic of society and of change. Many conflict situations in the world today can be said as conflicts over value integration that has caused 'anomie' such as ethnic conflict, racial conflict, the war against terrorism. Individuals even in post-modernity still don't have total choice but constrained by society in which she or he lives. For example, gender today still constrains what a person can think and do. Socialization remains important in creating individuals. From a personal standpoint, hard facts and data, tainted they may be, are more persuasive than a social theorist's open ended call for a Communist, classless society. Also, in the present state of the capitalist society specialization is as strong as ever before with the internet and other technologies creating a greater physical rift between individuals and their social and economic tasks. Therefore the threat of anomie is still existent. Social factors and economic measures may diminish the individual impact but society as a whole can still be affected. Implementing a system similar to Durkheim's occupational association seems more reasonable to if things came down to it. Distinguished himself from Marxist insistence on economic factor as the determinant of social change and Weber's famous view on the great influence of religion, Durkheim tries to explain social change by means of explaining the society itself apart from its individual members, through the analysis of the functional relationship between 'social facts'. By differentiating between social solidarity - one of the most important social fact that he is concerned with, Durkheim developed a series of theories to interpret the social change caused by industrialization and modernization. Durkheim's analysis of society is based on his view of social facts. Unlike his colleagues, he sees human society as an objectively existing entity preceding the individuals who comprise it. He believes that the behaviours of each individual do not evolve from one's desire; rather, these behaviours are lead by the social system. In his opinion, 'Members of society are constrained by 'social facts', by 'ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him'. Beliefs and moral codes are passed on from one generation to the next and shared by the individuals who make up a society...' (Haralambos, 2000, pp.1035) For example, if one buys a Rolls-Royce, the transaction does not occur simply because s/he wants the car, in deed s/he is also trying to earn certain respect and acceptance from the other individuals in the society. Durkheim coined the term 'social facts' to describe such societal respects and acceptance which he believed can hardly be modified. And from a functionalist stand point, these facts will be passed on from generation to generation by means of education, religious practice and other relevant social functions. Therefore, the person's will to buy a Rolls-Royce is probably inherited from his/er family tradition or caused by the influence of advertisement promoting certain social value. Thus, Durkheim believes that society stands apart from its members when being analysed. Furthermore, Durkheim tried to explain the social fact by seeking out its origin and the ingredients indispensable to its continual existence. He believes that 'The determining cause of a social fact should be sought among the social facts preceding it and not among the stats of individual consciousness.' (Haralambos, 2000, pp.1035)Consequently that buying a Rolls-Royce in exchange for prosperity and respect does not spring from the common desires of purchasing high quality goods, rather the root is in the social fact which refers to the human nature of respecting people who can 'lead a better life' in capitalist society, partly influenced by the Protestant Ethic. (Haralambos, 2000, pp.449) Durkheim then looks into the continual existence of social facts and discovers that 'Social facts therefore continue in existence because they contribute in some way to the maintenance of society, because they serve 'some social end'' (Haralambos, 2000, pp.1035) He believes that a particular social fact could only exist when it, in someway, contributes to the function of the society. With a successfully established base for the analysis on society, Durkheim goes on to argue that the existence of the society depends on the cohesion of its members. In his 'The Division of Labour in Society' (1893), he used 'Social solidarity' to describe such kind of social cohesion. He believes the 'collective conscience', comprised by series of shared values, beliefs, and moral principles, is essential to maintain the social solidarity. Durkheim begins with human nature and constructs the 'homo duplex' model to interpret the dual motivation of individual behaviour. He states that self-interest exists in every individual of the society and people's behaviour therefore has a tendency to follow such basic instincts and is often led by biological needs. However, social integration is not completely impossible, thanks to another side of human nature - the ability to accept the collective conscience. Durkheim then goes on to explain the transformation from pre-industrial society to industrial society based on his theory of social solidarity. He sees the social solidarity in pre-industrial society as a mechanical unity based on the similarities of individuals. His view is that 'The force of these social links is such as to discourage individual autonomy, and the social whole envelops the individual so completely that there is no distinction between the individual conscience and the collective conscience.' (Morrison, 2000, pp.129) Durkheim claims that this type of solidarity can only exist in pre-industrial society where 'the division of labour is based on social cooperation with little or no specialization' and 'social links between individuals based on custom, obligation and sentiment.' Its existence also requires low degree of individual autonomy or individualism and 'a system of penal law based on repressive sanctions which punish individual transgressions swiftly and violently.'(Morrison, 2000, pp.129) However, with the rapid industrialization and modernization toward the end of 19th century, the intensive development of division of labour eventually brought an end to the mechanical solidarity and re-established a new form of social unity, which was termed 'organic solidarity' by Durkheim. He pointed out that 'the division of labour alters the nature of the social links since these links no longer tie individuals directly to society, but rather establish social relations between individuals based on mutual economic interdependence.' (Morrison, 2000, pp.130) With a careful contrast- and-comparison, Durkheim finds that unlike mechanical solidarity, organic solidarity is based on the differences between individuals. And such solidarity is still spacious enough to allow for further division between individual conscience and collective conscience. However, the collective conscience is still the essence to maintain the social unity and can not be neglected. Nevertheless Durkheim also perceived the potential instability of this type of solidarity caused by the substance of division of labour from the view of human nature. His 'homo duplex' model interprets the fact with the self-interest behind an individual's behaviour. And when this side of human nature predominates, it will seriously affect one's ability to accept the collective conscience. Consequentially, self-interest will become the sole guideline of social life and the disintegration of the society will take place. For Durkheim, this collapse of a society is an extreme case of 'Anomie', the term he used to describe the society under normlessness. According to him, anomie will occur when the rapid social change seriously disrupt the existing moral regulation and common conscience while the new social order is yet to be formulated. Norms will be questioned and the level of individual's life desire will be confused. This disruption therefore will encourage the dependence on self-interest, thus reducing the degree of social integration. In practice, the road to industrialization becomes the road to anomie: people become unreligious and insatiable, indefinitely seeking material satisfaction; the sense of social duty will be eroded while egoism and individualism peak. In his work Suicide (1897), Durkheim tries to prove this by giving detailed statistics and illustrations of climbing suicide rates, a social fact which he believed to be the outcome of industrialization. The high rates of Egoistic suicide and Anomic suicide during the period of industrialization were enumerated and compared to the stable date in the period of pre-industrial of Europe. In order to solve these problems, a theory of division of labour at society level was brought in by Durkheim, referred to as 'occupational association'. To prevent the self-interest side of an individual from overpowering, he proposed to reconstruct the moral order of industrial society through the function of occupational association, that is, to divide people into different social groups according to their profession. He believed that 'economic activity should be permeated by ideas and needs other than individual ideas and needs' (Haralambos, 2000, pp.1035), that is, the ideas and needs of the whole society which represents in the form of occupational associations. The unfair property distribution system aim at individuals such as the inheritance mechanism should be abandoned, and be replaced by a reward system that based on the differentiation of contributions among associations. In this case, Durkheim insists that social control would be re-established at the level of professional groups, not the individuals; the members in associations could have a chance to expect a right standard of their economic rewards under a reasonable limit, the consensus would therefore be re-established under the circumstance of occupational association. The state will then reintegrate these consensuses at a national level and bring out the collective conscience of the whole society. The organic solidarity in industrial society will therefore be enforced. As a virtual functionalist, Emile Durkheim produced series of concepts based on his unique interpretation on 'social facts'. He concentrates himself on the analysis of social solidarity by explaining how it changed by the development of division of labour and showing its importance of integration of a society. He also expounds the situation in which social solidarity might break down and termed 'anomie' to define such scenarios. Reference Durkheim, E. Moral Education, The Free Press, Glencoe Durkheim, E. Moral Education, The Free Press, Glencoe Haralambos, M. Holborn, M. (2000) Sociology, Themes and Perspectives 5th ed. England, Collins Educational Publisher, London, the United Kingdom International Publishers. Marx, Karl, 1988. The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 Karl Marx and the Communist Manifesto (Great Books in Philosophy Series). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels, 1986. The German Ideology. New York: Morrison, K. (2000) Marx Durkheim Weber, SAGE Publications Ltd., London, the United Kingdom Read More