The Modern World-System - Assignment Example

After decades of implementing ways and means to help poor countries become self-reliant and progressive, trying different theories to transform the world into what developed countries want it to be, there remains to be a need to define what should be the right concept of developing the underdeveloped countries. The latest approach being taken by United Nations considers eight (8) major goals for all poor countries to reach by 2015 to 2020. They are recognized worldwide as Millennium Development Goals (MDG), namely, (1) End Poverty and Hunger. (2) Universal Education, (3) Gender Equality, (4) Child Health, (5) Maternal Health, (6) Combat HIV / AIDS, (7) Environmental Sustainability, and (8) Global Partnership (UN Press Release 2010). The goals definitely look good. Different countries have their own statistical data. Based on those data, programs are generated by the government such that the goals can be achieved by 2015-2020. UN-MDG, as a way of overcoming poverty worldwide, considered the alarming growth in slum dwellers that Mike Davis (2007) wrote about in his book entitled “Planet of Slums”. Poor countries and even parts of the developed countries are projected to be home for 2 billion slum dwellers within 3 decades. They will be experiencing lack of basic needs like bedrooms, toilets, employment, aside from shelter. Whose fault is it ? Or what went wrong with capitalism in the USA and India? What went wrong with communism in China ? All three countries have millions of slum dwellers – USA, 12.8 million; India, 158.4 million; China, 193.8 million (Davis, p.24). The book blames participants of Global Capitalism, including UN, World, Bank, IMF, NGOs. What Mike Davis is actually saying is that their concept of developing poverty stricken countries must be very shallow. Thus, their solutions have not been working to reverse the trends towards growth of slum dwellers. A-1. What is the most appropriate conceptualization of development with regard to poor countries ? I believe the world leaders should take the positive approach of re-creating the environment, specially economic, social, political, educational , and natural conditions of human beings. The eight (8) goals appear to be focused on negative situations. There should be a World Plan about what we would like to see and have in countries. The UN-MDG does not even emphasize how decongestion of overcrowded communities can be successfully accomplished. It can be done by “creating” businesses in locations where vast, unused lands can be developed into “new” commercial districts where more jobs can be opened. People in the presently urbanized but crowded areas can be re-educated to be qualified for positions in newly opened businesses in neo-commercial lands. Let us trace concepts of development as understood in history to see if there was any new world planning. Global Development which used to be called International Development actually began way back in January 20, 1949 when the 33rd President of the United States, Harry Truman, announced to the world America’s renunciation of imperialism then understood as exploitation of other nations for the sake of more wealth. The objective was to make the “scientific and industrial progress in affluent countries available to developing countries.” (Adam Szimai, p. 585) Some concepts like political and economic liberation, social evolution, Marxism, imperialism, colonialism, and nationalism, were replaced by the term international development. Western Europe realized economic prosperity since then, with the use of modern agricultural and industrial technologies along with trade relations. The concept of development by that time was based on the modernization theory. (Wikipedia) In Vietnam, modernization meant rural reconstruction, civic action, and revolutionary development. But people resisted it. American ideology was defeated by the Soviet ideology. Nils Gilman (2003) used the term “tragedy of modernization theory” explaining further that the promoted term “progress” was observed to be right beside “authoritarianism” over the Vietnamese. ( p. 20) Dependency Theory became known as “…an historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economy such that it favors some countries to the detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economics...a situation in which the economy of a certain group of countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which their own is subjected.” (Santos, p. 226) It was not the same as Marxism or Communism which Democratic Countries were trying to avoid. Unfortunately, Vietnamese were being indoctrinated with Marxism and were made aware of the unjust modernization which got tied up with a dependency theory. By 1970s-1980s, Immanuel Wallerstein, a sociologist, introduced the World System Theory which rejected the idea of a Third World to identify the poor countires, saying that there is only one world where people must learn to coexist. However, he considered the world as a system of economic exchange in a network. This was later on criticized as a narrow-minded view of materialistic people. “The mark of the modern world is the imagination of its profiteers and the counter-assertiveness of the oppressed.” ( Vol. 1, p. 223 ) To conclude the review of historical concepts of development, it is worth emphasizing the absence of any creative plan concerning decongestion of urban areas, development of new urban areas where the population can be dispersed, provisions for even how a well-planned new urban location should be. The right concept of developing poor countries is not only about urban planning and development but also about human development. UN-MDG should have first of all highlighted what world leaders mean by “End Hunger & Poverty”. If it simply means food, clothing, shelter, the focus can be made more specific in terms of solutions like Drinking Water Sufficiency, Adequate Sanitation Facilities, Adequate Appropriations for Social Welfare in terms of balanced food supply, Individual Shelter Facilities. A-2 What are the possible objections to taking a positive approach and having a World Plan? The goals have to be well-defined in terms of specific solutions instead of problems. What really are the dimensions of poverty and what corresponding solutions will bring about progress for the advancement of poor countries? The possible objections can only be an implied additional hard work, time and effort to be more detailed, and allegations of foreign intervention. Both are irrelevant since it will be the interest of the poor country that will be served. Therefore, it is but right to persuade officials to work harder on grounds of having noble end results for poor countries. The impact of unclear definition and presentation of goals resulted in “vague” performance reports from the poor countries themselves. B-1. Pakistan, for example, has 184,404,791 people as of 2010. 95 % are Muslims. 35 % live in the urban areas, with growth in population there running at 3 % per year. 17.2 % were below the poverty level. (CIA) Ashraf M. Hayat, Cabinet Secretary for Pakistan’s Planning and Development, reported a failure in achieving, enumerating the reason why there was a failure, namely, (1) slow economic growth, (2) severe energy crisis, (3) socio-political problems, (4) security issues, (5) war against terrorism, and (6) recent floods. (Daily Times, Web) Glancing at the report, anyone will discover how the focus was on the problems. In trying to achieve the goal of global partnership, for example, it was reported that the problem was due to trade policies of rich countries that prevented exports. Wanting quota free and duty free access to exports (which is what the Deputy Chairman for Planning Commission suggested in his speech) cannot be a solution because there are many poor countries that will want the same favor. Perhaps identifying other exportable products in demand abroad can be a solution. There were indicators of accomplishments under each of the 8 goals. Under poverty and hunger, these are the proportion of population below the calorie based food expressed in percentage As can be observed, this involves just the food supply and it did not even mention drinking water facilities, clothing, or any shelter. How can Pakistan solve the issue of poverty if all they have in mind is food for the hungry ? (UNDP-Pakistan, Web) Another set of indicators were those under the goal for people to obtain Universal Education. Are they teaching mostly religious beliefs of Islam ? At least in the UN-MDG write-ups about Pakistan educational development, clarifications should be made public as to what are the students supposed to study. The citizens of Pakistan might see this as a means of colonization. If that might be the case, perhaps the trading partners should sponsor educators to avail of more scholarships for Professional Educators in one of the advanced countries. When they return to Pakistan to teach, they can initiate changes for purposes of gently re-educating the people towards the right educational materials. Moreover, the indicators pertaining to the goal of Universal Education refer only to primary education. What about secondary education onwards? If part of the major problems is unemployment and under-employment, how does the United Nations expect people to be employed if the concern for educational goals is only up to the primary education? UN-MDG should also monitor the increasing number of people who enter the secondary educational level and even the college level, because it is usually those who have at least a college education who can find jobs. Those who take vocational courses should also be counted. The goal of Environmental Sustainability consisted of 8 targets for Pakistan. One of them was reforestation. As early as this year, government reported difficulties and doubts about being able to meet the goals for reforestation (UNDP, Web). We have to ask why they find it difficult to plant more trees. The 2010 accomplishment report gave no feedback about why. Another one included under the same goal was GDP energy used, which looks like a queer factor to monitor. This can be reclassified under Technological Advancements Towards Alternative Energy Sources. Pakistan will be a big market for alternative energy sources because according to its scientists, the country is energy deficit. Professors Zaigham & Nayyer said in their report: “As Pakistan is the agricultural country and major part of population lives in the rural areas, the electricity generated by renewable sources will also improve rural life, thereby reducing the urban migration that is taxing the ability of cities to cope with their own environmental problems ( p.1). Solar Power & Wind Power were then reported as good alternative sources. But is the UN-MDG guiding Pakistan to aim for progress in such a direction in the absence of clarifying details about each of the goals ? Three other very important goals not included for Third World countries to achieve would be the establishment of Peace and Order, Socio-Political Stability, and reduction of Graft and Corruption. Once again, the definitions for these goals have to be clearly presented and understood. Especially for Pakistan where reports about war have been going on since the 9/11 terror attack, the UN-MDG should have formulated specific steps leading to the achievement of peace and order. In all other poor countries where there have been similar problems, controlled areas where people can enjoy tranquility should be expressed in land area coverage. A gradual increase would be better than no record of which places are safe to live in within countries plagued with conflicts. I verified another country’s performance, this time belonging to a rich Muslim population. B-2. In Oman, nobody was reported to be living below the poverty level. It’s population is only 2,967,717. About 72 % live in urban communities. Children per woman is 2 to 3. Life expectancy there is over 72 years old for male and nearly 76 years old for female. 75 % are Muslims. Unlike Pakistan, however, these Muslims are living above the poverty line. What makes Oman belong to the middle income group of countries ? Its country has been oil producing. But its oil supply is said to be dwindling, so that the government has taken steps towards diversification and industrialization. (CIA) Wikipedia reports that by November 2010, Oman has become “the most-improved nation in the last 40 years, from among 135 countries worldwide.” Aside from oil, its country is rich in mineral resources, namely, chromite, dolomite, zinc, limestone, gypsum, silicon, copper, gold, cobalt and iron. Its Sultanate has also diversified to Information Technology and Telecommunication. The clear advantage then of a developed country like Oman is that its government looks up to positive developments in very specific or concrete projects aimed at productivity. UN-MDG unfortunately lacks such a guiding mechanism for Third World countries. Pakistan, with its many trading partners -- U.S., UAE, UK, Germany, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, China, Japan, Kuwait – should have more government supported Entrepreneurs to build up expansion projects of the county’s multiple agricultural businesses (cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables; milk, beef, mutton, eggs) and multiple industrial businesses (textiles and apparel, food processing, pharmaceuticals, construction materials, paper products, fertilizer, shrimp). Include as a specific goal the number of people employed and the household income earned per household or provider. These “critical” specific goals being absent in the UN-MDG will make it difficult for Pakistan to rise out of poverty. Conceptualizing development for poor countries will therefore require acceptance of greater responsibilities since detailed planning requires more work. There are millions below the poverty line. That means having to monitor, plan, create, promote, and build up many more Entrepreneurs and business entities capable of hiring millions of unemployed people. It also means requiring governments to start counting their toilet and other basic facilities in urban areas, and in locations far away but accessible to transportation. Start counting the number of enterprises to be added in unpopulated parts of Pakistan so that congested urban areas can be decongested. More comprehensive reports must be expected from the Third World countries in exchange for adequate financing of whatever projects will correct the deteriorating or stagnating conditions of people. My proposal does not lay the burden on the poor countries but on the developed countries who have vested interests in developing them. Will they not be future markets of investor nations. If the investment climate is too risky, like in situations where war keeps on persisting for years, private investors will most probably tie up their resources elsewhere. The right way to conceptualize development of poor countries is very similar to treating a poor man we can encounter in times of crisis. Treat him as a human being. Don’t corrupt gullible or weak characters because of their needs or wants. Is it not obvious how he needs basic requirements for living ? If that is your brother out in the streets scavenging for food somewhere in the garbage of commercial restaurants, will you just watch him following the way of a hungry animal ? The provision of funds in favor of government officials might have to be reduced in favor of direct investments where they are needed. But the net effect will be to actually help the government decongest the slums, open new job opportunities, give more people better living conditions. After people earn, won’t the government naturally earn more taxes ? Development of people should not be viewed as mere dole outs to governments along with agreed upon plans. Rich nations ought to send highly educated forerunners of business enterprises wherever they should be. Back them up with skilled productive catalysts. In short, there would have to be investments in the terms of people who know what to do in order to turn a desolate community into a busy district that earns for both the citizens and the investors. Poor countries need the presence of talented Entrepreneurs as well as skilled people, whether or not they come from another country. But later on, when qualified citizens are able to take the place of those forerunners of the new businesses, positions can be turned over to them. Naturally, investors would want to entrust so much resources to people whom they know can protect their interest from the short term to the long term. To reduce risk, go hire the experts. UN-MDG should monitor increases/decreases in the following: 1.Business Enterprises in Pre-Urbanized Locations 2.Business Enterprises in Congested Urban Areas 3.Population in Urban Areas 4.Foreign Manpower in Pre-Urbanized Locations 5.Security Provisions in Pre-Urbanized Investment Areas (PUIA) 6.Potable Water Facilities in Urban Area 7.Potable Water Facilities in PUIA 8.Transporatation Facilities to PUIA 9.Markets & Food Supply in PUIA 10.Population in PUIA 11.Employed Citizens in PUIA 12.Housing Facilities in PUIA 13.Crime in the country 14.Crime in PUIA 15.Public Schools in PUIA 16.Students Enrolling in Secondary Schools 17.Students Enrolling in College 18.Class A Hospitals in PUIA 19.Class B Hospitals in PUIA 20.Government Offices in PUIA 21.Budget for Government Facilities in PUIA 22.Recreation Facilities in PUIA 23.Churches in PUIA 24.Use of Modern Technologies in PUIA 25.Agricultural Activities in general in PUIA 26.Industrial Activities in general in PUIA UN-MDG can also add other favorable detailed indicators of progress. References: Central Intelligence Agency. 2010. Middle East: Oman. The World Factbook. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mu.html . Accessed 24 Nov. 2010. Central Intelligence Agency. 2010. South Asia: Pakistan. The World Factbook.2010. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html . Accessed 24 No. 2010 Cullather, Nick. 2002. Development Doctrine and Modernization Theory. Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. 2002. Available at . Accessed 24 Nov. 2010 . Daily Times (Pakistan).2010. Country Fails To Achieve Major Goals. Millenium Development Goals Report 2010. 18 Sept.2010. Available at http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010%5C09%5C18%5Cstory_18-9-2010_pg5_12 . Accessed 25 Nov. 2010. Davis, Mike.2007. Planet of Slums. Verso, 1 Sept. 2007. Nils Gilman.2003. Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History. Johns Hopkins University Press. 2003. Theotonio Dos Santos, K.T. Fann and Donald C. Hodges, eds.1971. The Structure of Dependence. Readings in U.S. Imperialism. Boston: Porter Sargent, 1971. Szimai, Adam. 2005. Dynamics of Socio-Economic Development: an Introduction. Cambridge University Press, UK. 2005. UN Development Program – Pakistan. Pakistan’s Progress. Pakistan Millenium Development Goals Report 2010. UNDP 2010. Available at http://undp.org.pk/mdgs-in-pakistan.html . Accessed 25 Nov. 2010. UN Development Program – Pakistan. Pakistan’s Progress. Pakistan Millenium Development Goals Report 2010. UNDP 2010. Available at http://undp.org.pk/goal-7-ensure-environment-sustainability.html. . Accessed 25 Nov. 2010 UN Press Release. 2010. We Can End Poverty 2015. Millenium Development Goals. Web Services Section Department of Public Information, United Nations © 2010. Available at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ . Accessed 24 Nov. 2010. Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1980: The Modern World-System, Vol. II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750. New York: Academic Press. Zaigham, Nayyer Alam and Nayyer, Zeeshan Alam.2005. Prospects of Renewable Energy Sources in Pakistan. Renewable Energy Technologies & Sustainable Development. University of Karachi 2005. Read More