The Concept of Nationalism - Essay Example

NATIONALISM 0. INTRODUCTION The concept of human beings becoming more humane in the presence of others has been held as fundamental in the understanding of human nature since the ancient period.1 Highlighting its primordial importance, the Greeks have recognized and introduced the separation of the private sphere from the public sphere via segregating the attributes and functions that each realm possesses.2˒3 This demarcation is of primary significance because of assumed inherent differences between the nature of the private sphere and the public sphere.4 It is claimed that intrinsic in the private sphere is the hierarchical relation that is observed in familial relations. While in the public sphere what is observable is the fundamental respect that each person accords to his/her friends as they embark in interactions in the public arena.5 This differentiation is vital in the apprehension of human actions undertaken and performed in the human world marked by pluralism .6 Being such, one development in the modern period where the structure of the public sphere has become political needs further elucidation as some of the challenges in the contemporary era stems from the understanding of this particular concept - nationalism. The concept of nationalism is considered as a modern phenomenon.7˒8˒9 This is based on the premise that the nascent of the concept of nationalism is based on the socio-economic, cultural, ideological and political conditions of the period. 10 As such, nationalism is claimed to be modern. However, there is a strong contention regarding this point of view and that there are debates regarding this supposition.11˒12 In light of this context, this paper intends to elucidate the concept of nationalism and after its explication relate it with the notion of imagined communities, and then try to see what is its relation with the concept of post national constellation. The concept of nationalism will be clarified first because of the underlying view that a clearer explication of the concept of nationalism will enable the reader to further understand and see the relation of the concepts nationalism, imagined communities and post national constellation. Being such, the main question of this paper is what is the relation of the concepts nationalism, imagined communities and post national constellation? The main question has three sub-questions namely 1. What is nationalism? 2. What is imagined communities? And 3. What is post national constellation? The main question together with the three sub-questions will be addressed using conceptual analysis as the paper’s methodology. Recognising the vastness of the scope of the paper, as a limitation, the paper will solely focus in identifying (if any) the relation among the concepts nationalism, imagine communities and post national constellation. The paper will not be discussing contemporary issues like globalisation, terrorism and other similar issues. Although, it maybe mentioned in passing but no in depth discussions of these issues will be done in this paper. In order to address the problem of this paper and attain its aim, scholarly journals and books written in English and pertinent to the subject matter have been reviewed. In this regard, the paper will be having the following structure: First is an introduction which contains the background of the study, the problem of the research, the aim of the study, the limitation, the methodology used in order to address the question of the paper and the paper structure. The second part will be the discussion of nationalism. The third part will be the consideration of ‘imagined communities’ as a concept. The fourth part will be the discussion of post national constellation. The fifth part will be the presentation of the ‘relation of the three concepts –nationalism, imagined communities and post national constellation. Finally, the conclusion will be given. In the end, it is the hope of the writer that in the midst of the vast, numerous, scholarly works on this subject matter, this paper, may in its own way, add more in the understanding of the concepts of nationalism, imagined communities and post national constellation. 1.1. THE RISE OF NATIONALISM As mentioned earlier, the concept of nationalism is considered as a modern phenomenon because of the socio-economic, cultural, ideological and political condition of the time is ripe for the nascent of nationalism.13˒14 However, what does this mean? Even during the ancient period, the great thinkers have already tried ‘theorised’ on the origin of the city. Plato’s The Republic is one of the major books, which have dealt with this particular question. In Plato’s discussion of the origin of the city, the city is basically made up of men living together in a place and entering into exchanges in order to provide for their needs. 15 Thus, raising the idea that the inception of the city is anchored on the notion that since men recognise that they are not self-sufficient then they need others in order to survive.16 This speculation is significant as it presents the truism that since the beginning of the story of the Western civilisation there has been the presence of the continual effort to understand what drives humanity to come and live together and collectively try to attain the good life. In this regard during the ancient period, the context of the good life, though believed to be achievable in this world, the authentic ‘good life’ for human beings is to be attained in the immaterial realm.17 And whatever forms or manifestations of the good life that humans have in this physical world are to be perceived as incomparable with what is in the immaterial realm. The attention or focus on the predominance of the ephemeral reality over the physical reality has been perpetuated and propagated during the medieval period. The differences in the terminologies used become apparent since during the Mediaeval time the Church dominated the social discourse as such religious terminologies have substituted the philosophical and political terminologies of the Ancient period. However, what is important is the fact that there is still the dominance of the spiritual realm over the physical realm in the attainment of the good life for men. However, by 13th century in Europe, the Renaissance and the Revival of Platonism started. 18 These movements have slowly opened the shift in the world outlook. The Renaissance has put back the interests of men on the importance of the human person regardless of religion. Of course, this is not an overnight event. The Church acting as the fundamental source of knowledge, authority and power in almost all facets of humans’ life is still unshaken during this time. But these movements have afforded already a slow shift in paradigm. And the shift happened. By 16th century, the works of Francis Bacon, Leonardo Da Vinci and others have initiated the interests on the philosophy of nature which in turn have paved the way for the birth of science as it is now known.19 This change has deconstructed the role of the Church as the repository of knowledge, power and authority. And in fact, it has become her rival. But it is not only that, for even within the Church change is brewing. The Reformation movement of Martin Luther has created an internal rift within the Church herself, thus creating new ways of understanding the faith. Furthermore, since the Revival of Platonism, the idea of man as possessing the inherent ability to ask and articulate the questions pertinent to his existence and answer these questions become ethos with which the world is to be perceived –a world inhabited by human beings. The transformation that is happening in the society is further fuelled by questions regarding the legitimacy of the rule of the Kings. Philosophers like John Locke has openly questioned the validity and rationality behind divine rule as the anchor of the political reigns of the kings.20 In this regard, his philosophical erudition has created the notion of democracy that is known until now – government that is for the people, by the people and is through the people. So much so that the government becomes the administrator of the society, but its creator is the people, The people .21 All of these changes put together have created a society that is primed for the ideals of nationalism. The church as an authority has collapsed. The vacuum or gap that has been created by this change is not filled by science even if science has given men control of nature. This is because the realm of religion is the realm of values, of traditions, of cultures, of identity that bind people together making them believe of the precedence of homogeneity despite their differences. These values, which the church has cultivated for thousands of years, are left hanging with nowhere to bask on.22 And in the midst of these gaps, the vacuum is further compounded by industrialization which has tremendously changed the socio-political and economic structures of society in Europe during those times. 23 In this regard a look into the economic structure will show what had happened. In Arendt’s Totalitarianism, she claims that the concept of nationalism has its seed during the medieval period. She maintains that although there are only two classes in the society during this period, some Jews in Europe have already gained some access to the society by becoming middlemen, lenders and sellers.24 This condition continued until the early phase of the modern period. However, some of the Jews in Europe during the early phase of modernisation are not just basking on their acquired wealth but have also acquired education that have given them entrance into the intellectual circle of the period. In this condition, though they already have the recognition and respect of the nobilities at that time, still the rich and intellectual Jews are still considered as not citizens because they are neither members of the nobility nor members of the peasantry. This condition, created an opening for the Jews to lobby for recognition not just because they possess wealth or intelligence but as legitimate members of the society. In this regard, Arendt (1968) is claiming that some of the rich and intellectual Jews have used their possession and position to lobby for a change in the society, a change that will accommodate their classless status – thus the inception of the nation-state. The inception of the nation-state is necessary in the understanding the concept of nationalism as nation/state /nation-state demands a degree of nationalism.25˒26 This part of the history is being mentioned to highlight the fact that the concept of nationalism is intertwined with the socio-political, cultural, traditional, norms, economic dynamics, language of the society. The idea of nationalism is something that cannot be removed from the actual experience and struggle of the people that binds them together as homogenous, as one. In this regard, it can be impugned that “nationalism is shared principle of national self-determination: that states should correspond to homogeneous peoples, that homogeneous peoples had distinctive political interests, that mem-bers of homogeneous peoples owed strong loyalties to the states that embodied their heritage, that the world should therefore consist of nation-states having strongly patriotic citizenries.”27 Moreover, it “adopt programs of normative indoctrination de-signed to homogenize their subject populations and to activate their national commitments, cultural uniformity within states did increase, the cultural distinctiveness of states likewise increased, and spokesmen for national minorities did demand distinctive political treatment or separate states far more often than before 1789.”28 In the same tone, nationalism is “If there is any standard criterion today of what constitutes, a nation with a claim to self-determination, i.e. to setting up an independent territorial nation-state, it is ethnic-linguistic, since language is taken, wherever possible, to express and symbolize ethnicity.”29 But over and above the language and the shared land boundaries where people inhabit, is the fact that nationalism is a “political programme.”30 As a political programme, the concept of nationalism is meaningful in the sense that it holds and binds the people together and gives them a sense of belonging and identity.31 Removed from this political programme, nationalism is meaningless.32 However, scholars are not in agreement with this perception of the concept of nationalism. Some scholars maintain that the concept of nationalism is “a named human population sharing a historical territory, common memories, and myths of origin, a mass standardized public culture, a common economy and territorial mobility and common legal rights and duties for all its members.”33˒34 While Ernest Gellner attributes the phenomenon of nationalism to the rise of industrialisation. 35 Gellner claims that as the nation state has to educate and create a society that can provide the labour force necessary for the industrial revolution,36 it has capitalised on the existing homogeneity amongst its people so as to meet the demands of the industrialised society. Moreover, he claims that the homogeneity provided by education and the common language that is entailed by it has paved the way for the rise of egalitarianism.37 However, there are some problems that are seen in this theory even if Gellner’s explanation of nationalism is considered as the first systematic explanation of the phenomenon.38 These problems include incongruity with historical facts, the ideological congruence between nation and state are not empirically supported and industrialisation does not present a clear development of nationalism . 39 On the other hand, nationalism is also defined as the collective psychology of the people.40 In this numerous way of looking at nationalism what becomes manifest is the fact that the concept or phenomenon nationalism is vague and is difficult to delimit, thus hard to define.41 Nonetheless, nationalism is a powerful phenomenon that has influence the story of humanity and human beings’ relation with one another especially in the contemporary period. However, there is danger in nationalism- ethnicity, racism, national xenophobia. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek term ethnikos which means heathen or pagan and was first used by Reisman Davis in 1953. It was used in this sense from mid fourteenth century until mid nineteenth century, when it gradually refers to racial characteristics.42 In what way nationalism fosters ethnicity, racism? Despite seeming disagreement in the definition of nationalism, it appears that there is a ‘delicate’ consensus regarding the importance of homogenous people as one of the elements of a nationalism.43˒44˒45˒46 Delicate since the element or factor that may ascribe homogeneity to the people varies from one nation to another. As such, although homogenous people is an element of nationalism, it is ambiguous in itself. But very dangerous. Why? The idea of a homogenous people creates a rigid wall that demarcates the many who are in the majority group and the few who are deemed as the minority. This situation establishes the problem of assimilation in the mainstream society for those are considered as different. In fact, this problem has become more predominant in the contemporary period than ever. The persistent attack against the other now appears in the form of the deadly genocide. As such, “the Other, the different, the enemy within”47, is in constant threat in life, liberty and property as she/he strives to survive in a society that has failed to recognise their humanity. In this regard, perhaps, an altered approach to the idea of nationalism is necessary as humanity respond to the demands of globalisation and the reality of genocide. 1.2. IMAGINED COMMUNITES Anderson (1991) recognising the difficulty in defining and understanding the concept of nationalism using the current definitions proffered by various scholars, has come up with a definition that has become controversial and more apt in describing the nature of nationalism vis-a vis the life of the people that it has influenced and affected with. Anderson has defined nationalism as “an imagined political community” 48. Anderson has raised several reasons that act as the rationale why he claims that nationalism is an imagined political community. These reasons are: first, nationalism is imagined because the actual people in the community regardless of its size are not acquainted with one another. The relationship that exists among the individual members of the community who claims to be sharing the same sense of nationalism is but an abstraction and an imagined one.49 Thus, it raises the idea that when an ‘X is a person’ is being referred to as a member of a political community, it can technically refer to anybody, to any actual and living body but not necessarily to somebody.50 This clarification is important as it highlights the reality that the national consciousness that is claimed to be raised and awakened in nationalism is just imaginary, an illusion. Second, Anderson (1991) claims that nations are limited. 51 This limitation is attested by the fact that “no nation is coterminous with humanity.” 52This means that nations come and go in each generation and that no matter how big and powerful that nation maybe during its time, there will still be other nations who will come and rise and prosper. This truism presents the stark reality that no one nation can encompass all the human persons in this world across generations. Third, the nation is imagined as sovereign.53 It has been mentioned in the first part of the paper that the idea of nationalism fills in the gap created by the vacuum of the lost of the authority of the church as the source for social cohesion, values creation and other factors such as the questioning of the divine authority of the kings. Therefore, with these factors coming together, although the idea of sovereign has been far reaching and has been maintained, but now, its referent has been changed from something ephemeral – that which is beyond – to something that is concrete and ideal – each and every person enjoying freedom.54˒55˒56 Finally, despite of its being limited and imagined, it is a community of people. This is significant because it offers an old and new paradigm. Old, because as mentioned already, since the ancient period it has been recognised that to be fully human is to be with other human beings in the public arena where equals and friends meet.57 At the same time, the idea is new as it provides humanity a new impetus to continue living together despite the fact that our history is a witness of how human beings have been killing one another in the name of the ideals of the nation, of the ideology of nationalism. The imagined community of men and women becomes the spring board with which nation, persons enter the global community where the recognition of the inherent differences among each and every individual, each and every culture and nation becomes a source of pride and dignity and not of hate. This way of looking at the concept of nationalism is rooted not only on the socio-cultural, political and economic changes that is happening, but Anderson58 has technically attributed the rooting of nationalism to print capitalism. Reimer59 claims that Anderson’s definition of nationalism is anchored on the reality and truism of print capitalism. What is print capitalism? It is the “convergence of capitalism and print technology on the fatal diversity of human language created the possibility of a new form of imagined community, which in its basic morphology set the stage for the modern nation. The potential stretch of these communities was inherently limited, and, at the same time, bore none but the most fortuitous relationship to existing political boundaries (which were, on the whole, the high water marks of dynastic expansionisms).”60 In this regard, newspapers make a dramatic contribution to the people’s sense of nationalism. “Newspapers ‘made it possible for rapidly growing numbers of people to think about themselves, and relate themselves to others, in profoundly new ways.”61 Thus, via the utilisation of newspapers, the creation of a national expereince that people can relate with one another because they are able read and understand the language and the actual experience, has created a new dimension for the idea of nationalism. A new dimension is created in the sense that the national experience is no longer just an abstraction but a reality in the context of equal access to information62 standardizing time, language, territorial extent and mobility and identity.63 Although Anderson’s imagined communities has removed the myth and illusion of nationalism by deconstructing and putting into the centre of the discourse of nationalism the vast influence of a language and print capitalism64˒65, there are strong counter arguments which are raised against his definition of nationalism. The first criticism is that it speaks of the European experience of nationalism. The focus on the ‘Creole pioneers’ and their fight for independence affirms this observation leading to the point that in the construction of nationalism even the “ imagination is forever colonized.”66 This is a vital criticism since it opens the fact that the current discussion on nationalism centres on the colonisers’ perspectives. This creates a tension on how to interpret and look at the anti nationalist sentiments of the colonised people. What paradigms are to be used in understanding the concept of nationalism by those who are oppressed and colonised? Are we to use the same lens as those used by the colonisers? In the end, it raises another question pertinent to nationalism – so what if nations are imagined communities? 67 The second criticism that has been raised against Anderson’s imagined communities it is inclusive of the male experience but it is silent whether females perceptions and views of the imagined community are included. This point is raised by feminists thinkers who have pointed to the facticity that Anderson is referring to the ‘fraternity’ which means the brotherhood of men.68 It is always safe to say that women are included in that space allotted for men. But then again the language which is of primary importance in the creation and honing of nationalism is in itself exclusionary of the other half of the population -women. Thus we ask, where is the sisterhood in the imagined communities? The third criticism against Anderson’s imagined communities is that it is silent in on imagination as a form of bonds between and among peoples are produced and reproduced. This criticism drives at the heart of the idea imagined communities since it questions the validity on how the common imagination is forged that it results into nationalism or the concept of nation. Moreover, it questions the very assumption of Anderson in lieu of nationalism as imagined political communities69 (Reimer, nd). All of these criticisms point to the question of power relations which is not well defined in Anderson’s definition. However, despite these valid criticisms and concerns, the influence of Anderson’s work in the contemporary understanding of nationalism is undeniable.70 In this regard, it can be claimed that the concept of nationalism, though made more concrete and real by the definition of Anderson, is still not free from the vagueness that accompanies the concept. The reality of its power in influencing people and rallying them towards action undertaken in the real world like wars or humanitarian services is as real as its ambiguousness if not vagueness at all. Yet, the concept of nationalism is now entering a phase where barriers among nations are removed in the name of progress – globalisation. 1.3. POST NATIONAL CONSTELLATION Jürgen Habermas, one of the most influential contemporary European Philosopher, advocates a change that moves beyond the nationalization of states towards the creation of a post national constellation. By looking at the term alone, it connotes the end of nationalization of states towards the creation of asupranational. It should be noted that there are underlying principles that supports this move and that it is not something that can be created overnight.71 The necessary institutional and political structures should first be established before such a move can be decided on. 72 As such it is important to at least get an idea on how Habermas looks at persons, society and nations before plunging into post national constellation. However, it should be noted that this attempt in elucidating Habermas’ philosophy is gargantuan and a herculean task. Bu the research deems it necessary in order to get a good understanding of post national constellation Tracing the influence of Kant in Habermas’ works, it can be claimed that his concept of rational person stems from the idea of free will which is deemed as necessary in making moral decisions.73 This is important since it bridges the gap the dichotomy between the rational mind and the human body that has been perpetuated in modern period. The rationality that Habermas adheres to is not a simple theoretical rationality that affirms man’s capacity to think and decide. Rather, by incorporating the Kantian rationality, Habermas has placed the subject, the person that is capable not only of knowing but of making decisions at the center of the world of human actions. Because for Kant the decision maker, the human subject, is no longer immaterial but rather a human person that is both capable of internal rationality and undertaking appropriate actions in lieu of one’s moral decisions. Ascertaining rationality as not only inherent but as demanding external manifestations in the choices and decisions that human beings make and the actions that they take to actualize their decisions,74˒75 Habermas has taken one step further by putting into the centre the role of language and man’s ability to communicate his decision utilising the same language. This is important in the sense that language becomes a tool not only of memory but it becomes the tool for negotiation in the public arena.76˒77 This is significant for it poses the reality of being with peers or equals or friends in the public sphere. The presence of language vis-a vis man’s capacity for rational decisions, and for undertaking actions that will realized one’s decision opens or creates the venue where people using the same language and possessing inherent attributes out of their own humanity meet and enter into discourse, action.78 As the person acknowledges these attributes of his/her humanity, the condition now is set for persons to enter into the creation of a legal and cultural community. And at the heart of this decision and action is freedom and democracy.79 This decision of entering into a community of persons that share the same language and culture is for Habermas the necessary condition for the inception of a nation state. At the moment that the nation-state is born, it can be analysed using the four elements of nation –state. These elements are: 1. Administration of the state. 2. Sovereign control of territory. 3. Self-perception as a nation and 4. Rule of law and social institutions.80 However, in the contemporary scenario, these four aspects of the nation state is confounded by the reality of globalisation. Globalisation is contemporary phenomenon known only in the last fifty years.81 Generally, the first impression pertinent to globalisation is liberalisation of the market and economy which concretely means the removal of trade barriers among and between and that it exists in the forms of tariffs and taxes.82 However, globalisation is not only about trade and commerce. It also involves the massive movement of people changing perception regarding national identities and cultural belongingness.83 In the face of this reality, the question that one is confronted with is how are nation states coping in the face of globalisation? Perhaps, the glaring effect of globalisation is not only in terms of economic movements but also in terms of the movement of people. Globalisation has created the lobal community that thrives in the recognition of truism of pluralism.84 This implies that the apparent cultural differences that exist among and between nations is no longer deem as boundary that differentiates one culture from another in a stereo-type negative sense. Rather,as the global community is marked by pluralism, the inherent differences are perceived as the common ground with which different culture meet in the public sphere of the global world, where the chance to expand knowledge, be more inclusive in the perpetuation and sustainability of the pluralist world is attained. And it is in the recognition of changes that globalisation as a process demands that a post national constellation can be adopted. The reality of the post national constellation is already right in our face in the presence of transnational companies and multinational companies. In fact, the truth of TNCs and MNs have dramatically pushed nation-states at the heart of globalisation.85 As such, they can no longer deny that new dynamics are needed: new democratic institutions that will address and accommodate the imbalance, that will secure jobs and posterity in the midst of the massive movements of people and the creation of a collective identity that will create one nation and its people a citizen of the world. So, what is post national constellation? It is the establishment of a supranational that is no longer bounded by the inherent difficulties and vagueness of nation and nationalism but is bounded by a common experience and global solidarity86 which in turn may hopefully give rise to global civic consciousness. Although , Habermas is sceptical regarding the possibility of a global civic consciousness or a global government but he asserts the viability of an international system or arena where international systems negotiate with the local or domestic processes.87 This is workable. European Union is on this track, “Taking a leading role does not mean excluding.”88 1.4. ANALYSIS The concept of nationalism is ambiguous even vague.89 There are numerous socio-political, cultural, economic and ethical, dimensions that affects and influences the notion of nationalism. Regarding its roots, scholars are in disagreement whether the concept of nationalism is modern. Although Gellner holds that, the way nationalism is conceived now is definitely a result of modern period, but there are scholars who are contesting this on the premise that nationalism is multifaceted and that several factors have to be taken into consideration before it can be clarified. 90˒91˒92˒93˒94˒95 Nonetheless, despite this reality nationalism is still a very powerful tool that can mobilise people. As such, a continued elucidation of the concept has been undertaken. Anderson96 has provided a more concrete and realistic definition of nationalism. at the same time, his explanation opens the understanding of the contemporary concept of national experience. This he attributes to the newspapers and media which has been used extensively in creating the imagined national identity, national experience. However, a jolt in the reality is experienced by nation-states – globalisation. As globalisation removes economic barriers that separate nations, it too, created the opening for the massive movement of people.97˒98 As such, as the reality of TNCs and MNCs shatters economic independence but fosters interdependence among nations , globalisation via the massive movement of people has deconstructed the concept of national identity and belongingness. Thus, under the lens of globalisation, differences are not rigid walls that separate rather differences are vehicles of knowledge, bridges of gaps and ethos in the pluralistic global community. In this paradigm, Habermas is telling us that the old structures of nation-state are now inept in adopting to the demands and challenges brought about by globalisation. He raises the idea that only constraint incoming up with a European identity that crosses boundaries are the people who have failed to see and rise up to the demands of globalisation. He is not saying that globalisation is good, he is pushing the reality that in the midst of North and South what can be done – an international arena where international systems are negotiated with domestic processes. This figure shows the movement of nationalism towards change in understanding and appreciation is brought by several factors and elements that have come together. No one single factor can be claimed to be the sole cause of nationalism. Habermas via post national constellation is offering a paradigm that destroys the limited visions of nationalism and its entailed negative repercussions of ethnicity, racism, and national xenophobia . By adopting changes that are responsive to the challenges of globalisation, there is the possibility of creating an international arena where negotiations between international systems and domestic processes are undertaken. Thus this is the movement, Man (rational actor) Group of rational, free actors/actress nation- state post national constellation 1.5. CONCLUSION Post national constellation is a reality that opens the world of human beings to further integration. It has the potential of removing national xenophobia and of attaining a holistic, genuine and synergistic understanding of the human condition and humanity’s position. However, it should be noted that post national constellation can still be a dream and not a reality if people fails in transcending the limits of their nation-state. Thus, post national constellation is a challenge to create a more humane, just and freer global community. (5600 words) BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of Nationalism. New York: Verso. Arendt, Hannah. (1959) The Human Condition : A Study of the Central Dilemmas Facing the Modern Man. New York: Double Day Anchor Book,. ________. (1968a) Between Past and Future: Eight Exercise in Political Thought. New York: Penguin Books. _______. (1968b) The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, INC. Calhoun, Craig. (1993) “Nationalism and Ethinicity.” Annu. Rev Social. 19:21 : 211 – 239. Copleston, F. S.J. (1994) A History of Philosophy. New York: Doubleday. Eriksen, Thomas. “Ethnicity and Nationalism” in Ethnicity and Nationalism 2nd Ed. Habermas, Jürgen. “Equal Treatment of Cultures and the Limits of Postmodern Liberalism." The Journal of Political Philosophy. Vol. 13, No 1 (2005): 1 -28. ___________. (1998) The Post National Constellation: Political Essays. Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ___________ . (1980) Legitimation Crisis. Trans by: Thomas McCarthy. London: Heinemann. ___________. (1999) “From Kant to Hegel and back again – the move towards detranscendentalism”, European Journal of Philosophy, 7:2, 129 -157. Habermas, J., & Derrida, J. (2003) “February 15 or what binds Europeans together: A plea for a common foreign policy, beginning inth ecore of Europe”, Constellation, Vol. 10, No 3, 291 – 296. Hobsbawm, Eric.J. & Kertzer, David.J. (1992) “Ethnicity and Nationalism in Europe Today”, Anthropology Today. Vol. 8, No 1 (Feb., 1992): 3 – 8. Gorski, Philip.S. (2000) “The Mosaic Movement : An Early Modernist Critique of Modernist Theories of Nationalism.” American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 105, Iss 5 : 1428 – 1468. Locke, J. (1952) The Second Treatise of Government. Ed by Thomas P. Peardon. Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. Plato. The Republic. Trans by G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Reimer, S. (nd) “Benedict Anderson” in Key Thinkers in Space and Place. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data./9613_020037cha1 and cah2 pdf. Accessed on 20 April 2010. Smith, A. (1991) National Identity. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. _______. (1992) “National identity and the idea of European unity”, International Affairs, Vol. 68, N0 1, 55 – 76. Schnee, W. (2001) “Nationalism: A review of literature”, Journal of Political and Military Sociology, Vol. 29, 1 – 18. Soros, G. (2002). George Soros on Globalization. New York: Open Society Institute. Suarez-Orozco, M.M., & Qin – Hilliard, D.B. (2004). Globalization: Culture and Education in the new Millennium. Berkeley: THE ROSS INSTITUTE. Tilly, Charles. “States and Nationalism in Europe 1492 – 1992.” Theory and Society. Vol. 23, No. 1 (Feb., 1994): 131 – 146. Read More