Sexism and Ageism as Seen by Parsons and Goffman - Essay Example

Parsons Sex and Age Role Stereotyping" and Goffmans Asylums The development of social thought through the years follows the changes in the social andcultural trends around the world. Many theorists have tried to capture the meaning and the expressions of the fundamental aspects of social life and thought; their studies lead to different assumptions in accordance with the personal perceptions of each one of them. Current paper focuses on the examination of the work of two major sociologists of the 20th century, Erving Goffman and Talcott Parsons. Although the general aspects of their views will be presented, not all their work will be analyzed; rather the ‘Asylums’ of Goffman and the ‘Sex and Age Role Stereotyping’ of Parsons will be the main theoretical works examined and analyzed throughout this paper. Just a few details are known regarding the life of Goffman, his early experiences within the Canadian society and the reasoning behind the development of his thought. The specific issue is highlighted by Winkin (1999) who noticed that ‘Goffman did not reveal very much about his life, his youth, his family or his past experiences to either his colleagues or friends; many of them had vague notions about him, but these were usually associated with the multiplicity of anecdotes about Goffman as a personage rather than with his actual social and intellectual trajectory’ (Winkin, 1999 in Smith, 1999, 19). Goffman was born in 1922 in Canada and died in 1982 in Philadelphia (see also Sociosite, 2008). The role of Goffman in the explanation of the various reasons of social reactions was quite important. Goffman managed to appropriately present human feelings under certain circumstances using specific methods of presentation and analysis of human behaviour. In this context, it is noticed that ‘using metaphors of the stage ("dramaturgy"), Goffman describes how ordinary individuals give performances, control their scripts, and enter settings that make up their lives’ (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th edition, 2007, pg. 19610). On the other hand, Burns (1992, 17) mentions that ‘from first to last, Goffman’s principal concern was with what is called "social interaction"—which could well comprehend virtually the whole of human activity’. Goffman tried to explain the response of individuals to specific social events; the reaction of people under conditions of psychological pressures was considered by Goffman to be of particular importance. This was one of the reasons that led him to develop the work ‘Asylums’ in order to ‘show the reasonableness and normality of much of the conduct of the mental patient’ (Smith, 1999, 11). The specific work is sub-divided into four essays each one of which refers to a specific aspect of the behaviour of society towards the people that suffer from a specific psychological disorder. These essays are the following ones: a) The first essay, ‘On the Characteristics of Total Institutions’ could be characterized as ‘a general examination of social life in these establishments, drawing heavily on two examples that feature involuntary membership - mental hospitals and prisons’ (Roberts, 2008, online article); this essay will be also analyzed in this paper; b) the second essay is the ‘The Moral Career of the Mental Patient’, an essay that ‘considers the initial effects of institutionalization on the social relationships the individual possessed before he became an inmate’ (Roberts, 2008, online article); this essay also will be discussed throughout this study; c) the third essay is entitled as ‘The Underlife of a Public Institution’; in the specific essay the ‘dependency’ developed between the inmate and a specific type of Public Institution (as described above) is analytically presented and explained and d) the fourth essay is the ‘The Medical Model and Mental Hospitalization’ which refers to the role of medical staff in the improvement of the mental conditions of inmates – the approaches used by medical staff towards this direction is described as of particular importance towards the achievement of the above target. It should be noticed – as already mentioned above – that not all essays included in ‘Asylums’ will be examined here; rather this study focuses on the examination of the first and the second of the above essays trying to emphasize on their main aspects – as they can be used in order to interpret the human behaviour under all social circumstances (i.e. not only within a mental institution). As for the second theorist, Talcott Parsons, the work of whose will be examined in this paper, the following details could be mentioned regarding his origins and his social and educational background: ‘Talcott Parsons was born on Dec. 13, 1902, in Colorado Springs, Colorado; he graduated from Amherst College in 1924, where he majored in biology, but decided to do graduate work in economics; Parsons was an instructor in the department of economics at Harvard University from 1927 to 1931’ (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2004, online article). The views of Parsons presented certain common points with those of Goffman – despite the fact that the above theorists also used different approaches in order to explain social behaviour as it will be made clear in the sections that follow. One of the main views of Parsons was that ‘all social systems tend to approximate a state of equilibrium, although no concrete system will actually reach a perfectly equilibrated state; the fully equilibrated society served as a theoretical reference point rather than as a description of a real system’ (Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2008). A specific part of the work of Parsons will be examined in this paper. More specifically his study entitled as ‘Sex and Age Role Stereotyping’ will be examined in this paper taking into account the fact that this work of Parsons had been developed under specific social circumstances which do not – any longer – exist. In this context, appropriate ‘customization’ of the assumptions related with the main characteristics of the above work should be made in order to ‘suit’ them to current social and cultural trends worldwide. As already noticed above, Erving Goffman, used a multidimensional theoretical base when approaching a specific social issue/ phenomenon. The fact that Goffman has extremely developed communication skills was perhaps a reason for the methodology used by him when having to interpret a specific social context. In this context, it is noticed that Goffman ‘established the "interaction order" as a legitimate topic of study; in doing so, he provided the logic for why, and the method for how, to study face–to–face behaviour’ (International Encyclopedia of Communication, 2007, online article). Asylums has been one of the most integrate work of Goffman in terms that most of his views regarding the various aspects of social thought is presented and explained in the essays included in the specific work. In fact, Asylums, which was written in 1961, was the result of an extensive research within St Elizabeths, a mental hospital in USA (Columbia) – the research lasted from 1955 to 1956. One of the most significant characteristics of Asylums was that ‘alone among Goffman’s major works, it does not focus on the interaction order; Goffman is here concerned with how the physical, organizational and ideological characteristics of a certain type of institution impinge on the selves of those who are drawn into its orbit’ (Smith, 1999, 87). The above view, could be characterized as a general evaluation on the specific work of Goffman; however additional assumptions could be also made – possibly using the ideas of Goffman as metaphors for the explanation of specific social behaviour (as analyzed below). The above assumptions can be made clear using directly the text of the above work. More specifically, in the first of the above essays, entitled ‘On the Characteristics of Total Institutions’ it is noticed by Goffman that total institutions are ‘places such as rooms, suites of rooms, buildings, or plants in which activity of a particular kind regularly goes on’ (Goffman, 1961A, section 1, p.15, in Roberts, 2008, online article). Furthermore, it is made clear that the above institutions ‘are encompassing to a degree discontinuously greater than the ones next in line; their encompassing or total character is symbolised by the barrier to social intercourse with the outside and to departure that is often built right into the physical plant, such as locked doors, high walls, barbed wire, cliffs, water, forests, [p.16] or moors’ (Goffman, 1961A, p.15-16, in Roberts, 2008, online article). The description of Total institutions as presented above shows their main ‘mission’: to keep inmates far from the social reality and the social events – banned from the various social activities. The above role of Total institutions can be considered as negative regarding the improvement of the condition of inmates; in fact under the above described terms, the condition of inmates is rather likely to get worsened. From another side of view, Total institutions could be used as an expression in order to symbolize any effort to put limits in the reaction of people against a specific social or political decision or behaviour. The second essay in Asylums is similar in each context with the first one; the behaviour of inmates – their reactions to specific social events – is identified and evaluated using specific criteria. The potential differentiation when explaining the work of Goffman – referring to the terms used throughout his work – can be made clear through the view of Burns (1992) who mentions that ‘the word "moral" in the title of the second essay, "The Moral Career of the Mental Patient", adds nothing to it apart from a little confusion’ (Burns, 1992, 170). The confusion to which the above researcher refers is related only in the ‘grammatical’ meaning of the term. In its explanation as a ‘social’ phenomenon ‘moral career’ cannot have many aspects. Just as the career within the professional environment, the career within the social environment is related with the commitment towards specific principles and values (just like the employee within an organization is committed to respect the values of the specific organization). The only potential difference between the use of career in its social aspect and its use in its professional aspect is that in the first case ‘a patient’s ‘moral career’ begins before he enters a mental hospital; indeed, in many cases, "commitment"—voluntary or involuntary—may not occur at all’ (Burns, 1992, 171). In other words, career in its social aspect can have many different interpretations; it can be used in order to explain the commitment of individuals towards the society (as well as the commitment of politicians towards the public). Regarding this issue, it is noticed by Goffman that ‘the term is coming to be used, however, in a broadened sense to refer to any social strand of any persons course through life’ (Goffman, 1961A, p.119, 122, in Roberts, 2008, online article). However, individuals may not be ready in order to be committed to specific social or political activities (even if these activities respond to the general moral obligations of every person towards the society, as in the case of the specific work). In this case, the intervention of the medical practitioners is necessary; they should suggest the methodology followed by inmates in order to adapt their behaviour (as possible) to the existed social and moral ethics. Regarding this issue, Goffman notices that ‘the career of the mental patient falls popularly and naturalistically into three main phases: the period prior to entering the hospital, the prepatient phase; the period in the hospital, the inpatient phase the period after discharge from the hospital, should this occur, namely the ex-patient phase’ (Goffman, 1961A, p.119, 122, in Roberts, 2008, online article). In this context, the patient has to consider (if possible) both his/ her own identity and the role that the society expects him/ her to play. The transition from the personal thoughts and concerns to the social principles and ethics will be made with the support of the medical staff. Before presenting the work of Parsons, it would be preferable to refer shortly to the value of the work of Goffman and its effectiveness (in terms of the achievement of the targets set by the above theorist). Generally evaluated, the work of Goffman could be characterized as quite effective highlighting the main aspects of the behaviour of patients suffering from mental illness; the behaviour of these patients is analyzed not only in its medical aspect but also in its social aspect referring to the moral obligations of patients as members of a specific society. In its general characteristics, Asylums is characterized as slightly differentiated from the other works of Goffman in the context that ‘the sheer skill in writing wins over the reader, once again, by its fluency in exposition, sheer dexterity, and occasional pungency; but the style is generally much plainer, more direct, and (comparatively) economical’ (Burns, 1992, 141). Towards the above direction, Hackin (2004) noticed that the above work of Goffman presents many similarities with that of Foucault, especially the ‘archaeology’. As already noticed above, not all the work of Parsons will be examined here but only the one entitled Sex and Age Role Stereotyping". The specific study refers to the various aspects of sex and age as criteria for the formulation of specific stereotypes, i.e. patterns that are widely accepted from the society (as being in accordance with the values and the principles of a particular society). In accordance with the views of Parsons ‘people’s age, education, gender, and other characteristics largely determine the life circumstances to which they are exposed; these include their socialization and learning experiences, the social roles they play, the expectations and sanctions they encounter, and the abilities they develop’ (ESS Edunet, 2008, online article, p.2). The above views, which are included in the work of Parsons and Bales (1955, ‘Family: socialization and interaction process’) present a specific role for women around the world; women are differentiated from men in the context that the former have to support the family while men ‘engage in and learn more "instrumental," task-oriented roles’ (Parsons et al., 1955, in EES Edunet, 2008, p. 4). In his work related with the Age and Sex and their influence on the social structure of USA, Parsons also supports that ‘our society is unique in that our children of both sexes are treated alike, relative to other societies; the main reason for this similarity is that children are given education that focuses mostly on liberal arts rather than vocations’ (Talcott Parsons: Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States from Talcott Parsons [1954] Essays in Sociological Theory. Glencoe IL; Free Press, ch. 5). In the above context, after children have grown up, women have to find other activities (including working) in order to fill their spare time. The views of Parsons are quite relevant with current social structure and morals. In many cases, his work can be regarded as being similar with that of Goffman in terms that both theorists refer to the role of people within the society. Goffman gives the title ‘moral career’ when describing this role (referring especially to patients suffering with mental illness). Other participants in modern society, women, have to fulfil their role as defined by the social and moral ethics: it could be characterized as a ‘moral career’ also despite the fact that no term is used by Parsons. References Burns, T. (1992) Erving Goffman. New York: Routledge EES Edunet (2008) online article, available at http://essedunet.nsd.uib.no/cms/topics/1/2/all.html Encyclopedia Britannica Online (2008) Talcott Parsons, online article, available at http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-444733/Talcott-Parsons Encyclopedia of world biography (2004) Talcott Parsons, online article, available at http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404704980.html Goffman E. 1961A Asylums. Essays on the Social Situation of Mental patients and Other Inmates Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968. First published New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1961 Hacking, I. (2004) Between Michel Foucault and Erving Goffman: between discourse in the abstract and face-to-face interaction. Economy and Society, 33(3): 277-302 International Encyclopedia of Communication (2007) online, available at http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/ICA_goffmanerving Parsons, T. & Bales R. (1955) (in collaboration with James Olds .. et all). Family: socialization and interaction proces. Illinois: The Free Press Parsons, T., "Sex and Age -Role Stereotyping" (You can find this in Farganis, J. (1993) Readings in Social Theory. McGraw Hill. Roberts, A. (2008) Erving Goffman [Middlesex University], online, available at http://www.google.com/gwt/n?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdx.ac.uk%2FWWW%2FSTUDY%2Fxgof.htm%23MoralCareer&_gwt_pg=0#MoralCareer Smith, G. (1999) Studies in a Sociological Legacy. London: Routledge Sociosite (2008) Goffman Ervin, online, available at http://www.sociosite.net/topics/sociologists.php#GOFFMAN Talcott Parsons: Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States from Talcott Parsons [1954] Essays in Sociological Theory. Glencoe IL; Free Press, ch. 5, available at http://www.sociosite.net/topics/sociologists.php#PARSONS The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th edition (2007) Read More