Effects of Alcohol on the College Performance - Research Paper Example

Executive Summary The aspect of college drinking has today become a matter of major concern in the United s, and is threatening to assume significant proportions in terms of students’ health and well being in the years to come. This scourge has been facilitated by the cheap and easy availability of alcohol, (despite legal restrictions on underage drinking) and fuelled by fallacious thinking that consumption of alcohol connotes independence and coming of age. It is nourished by the influence of peer groups and student circles, and a congenial underlying environment which encourages binge or episodic drinking, both in words and action. The purpose of this study is to test alcohol effects by carrying out an independent Research Experiment entailing the services of 30 students (of more or less similar IQs and backgrounds) from the local University, 15 girls and 15 boys (out of which 7 girls and 7 boys are teetotalers). Their average age was 17 years and they had no previous history of alcoholism- related problems. The experiment was preceded by research questionnaires and personal interviews conducted on individual respondents and recorded for later study. The findings of the experiments conducted proved beyond doubt that “alcohol is a powerful drug that slows down the body and mind. It impairs co-ordination; slows reaction time; and impairs vision, clear thinking and judgment....drinking while the brain is growing may lead to long lasting intellectual effects and may even increase the likelihood of delayed alcoholic dependence later in life.” (Talk to your child about alcohol. 2007). The hypothesis that attributes alcohol as a direct cause of academic non performance has tested positive during the course of deliberations in this research study. Research Question: does college drinking affect academic performance? Background of this study The designing of this Research study has been carried out for determining the positive or negative impacts of drinking by college students, on their learning and academic performance. For carrying out empirical studies on a topic of such importance to the students’ lives and future career, it is therefore, necessary that the incorporation of the research programme be done carefully and effectively, after giving due consideration to all aspects of the research question, through a clear planning process and procedure, not only to gain the optimum level of any interventionist or preventive strategy, but also to actively control and monitor it for impact and results. For a research experiment of this nature, the evaluative study and determination of the correct objective of research is as important as the procedure and methodology by which it is framed and implemented. Importance of this research question: Episodic campus drinking has assumed serious proportions in the USA and has adversely affecting academic performance in the student community; it also connotes indiscipline, lowering of ethical standards, sexual permissiveness under the influence of excessive alcohol and a host of social and physiological problems, besides endangering students’ mental health, well being and their future careers. In extreme cases, it has also been implicated in cases of student suicides on college campuses. “Approximately 2 in 5 college students engage in binge drinking. This style of drinking is associated with serious negative consequences, including academic difficulties; antisocial behavior; health and psychosocial problems; high-risk sexual behavior; and other risky behavior, such as drinking and driving. Accidental injury is the leading cause of death among older adolescents and young adults.” (Wechsler, Henry. et al. No. 5) Despite the fact that social and Governmental organizations have long evolved policies, practices and programs for curbing this social evil, the truth remains that much more effective implementation of research plans need to be done in these areas. My research Hypothesis: based on the premise that excessive alcohol interferes with the functioning of young minds, causing mental debility& lack of mental co-ordination affecting academic performance. Aims of the study In order to curb the onslaught of the evils of campus drinking and its detrimental effects on the student population as a whole, it has become necessary to introduce and implement powerful deterrents and effective legislation in this direction. The aim of this study is therefore, through experiment, to create understanding about the potential effects of episodic drinking and how it could be controlled and disarmed before further adverse repercussions take place. “Underage drinking is a major problem at American colleges, but little is known about the extent of alcohol use in different student groups, in different colleges, and in states with different control policies.” (Wechsler, Henry et al. 2007). Moreover, recent research has found that “many of the brain areas undergoing dramatic developmental change during adolescence are sensitive to ethanol. Ethanol use during adolescence may alter the developmental processes ongoing in these brain regions and hence may have different consequences than similar amounts of ethanol exposure in adulthood.” (Spear, Linda Patia. 2007). (National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 2006). It is relevant to mention in this context the words pronounced by Ms. Susan Resneck Pierce, President, University of Puget Sound, and she says” Excessive student drinking contributes to failed academic performance ranging from missed classes to attrition. At the same time many colleges and Universities unwittingly create a culture of student drinking by scheduling no classes on Friday, thereby creating 3 day weekends and by grade inflation which tolerates ands even rewards minimal student performance.” (Changing the culture of drinking at US Colleges. 2002). Another factor that comes to mind is that episodic drinking creates lesser avenues for student learning and thus contributes to loss of student study time. In the words of the NIAAA Director, Ting Kai, M.D., underage drinking is a complex and serious public health challenge. In spite of an increased awareness and understanding of the problem, underage drinking rates have remained constant-and unacceptably high-for almost a decade. Clearly, more research remains. The collective capabilities of these distinguished members of the steering committee will help take our thinking to new levels as we continue to work towards science-based strategies in prevention and treatment to safeguard the health of young people." (National Institute of Health. 2004). “The AMA report on the effects of alcohol on the brains of adolescents takes note of a study comparing magnetic resonance imaging of the brains of 14- to 21-year-olds who abused alcohol with those of nondrinkers. That study found that drinkers had about 10 percent smaller hippocampus—the area of the brain that handles memory and learning. Researchers call such a reduction significant and possibly irreversible.” (Harmful Consequences of Alcohol Use on the Brains of Children, Adolescents, and College Students. 2007). Considering the gravity of the problem which has been detailed in earlier pages, it is necessary to formulate an effective strategy that could have a wider scope for implementation. Important factors to be considered for this research There are certain aspects which need to be kept in mind and it is keenly felt that any research study should take into consideration the following important aspects: 1. Identifying the specific motives for the research study and its perceived intentions or objectives. In other words, it is first of all necessary to chalk out the research objectives of the study and what specific outcome is envisaged when designing the study. 2. The research needs to be evaluated in terms of the planning, organizational and interventional procedure to be adopted for this research study and delineated in specific terms how it could be institutionalized. 3. Outlining how the research implementation would be implemented in terms of the target respondents, how it would be carried out. 4. Formulating and positioning a data collection programme 5. Provision of feedback for the interventionist procedures. Factors influencing research study: Since a sound research study would have to depend upon its skillful and appropriate planning, organization and implementation, since a wrong or misdirected research would have negative results, and would be self-defeating, it is important that at the conceptualization stage of the research study, the above mentioned aspects are taken care .Therefore, it is necessary to elaborate on the above mentioned factors which influence a good research study. 1.Identification of motives of research study : While the concept is student drinking is a universal and well known problem, the solutions, or the means of attaining a worthwhile and long term solution to this vexed issue is not so, and has so far, defied productive solution. The aspects that need to be kept in mind are: Is the objective a total elimination of drinking among college students? Is the goal to control and limit the excessive consumption of alcohol among college students? Is the intention of research study to eliminate or subjugate alcohol-related behavioral problems in college youth? Is the intention to entail off campus behaviors restrictions also? 2. Planning, organizing and pre-research study: There are several aspects to be considered before the aspect of research is carried out and they are with regard to following aspects: The philosophy and academic mission statement of the institution, the nature of the purpose of the institution, the level and standards of the prevention resources available and the scope for their implementation, all of which play a determining role. In addition to this, it is also necessary to consider the key constituents and characteristics of the research study and the attitudes of the key personnel involved in the conceptualization, design, and implementation and follow up of the research study. Local environment in which the college is situated and the prevailing student culture is also significant determinants. 3. How the intervention would be implemented – research methodology. Would the research consider implementation among Individuals, Groups, Institutions, Communities, or State and/or Federal jurisdictions? It is also better in a survey of this type to consider two or more options instead of restricting the study to just one option. 4. Formulating and positioning a data collection programme: Relative to the above, this considers the data collection of the available research consultation with the other college or university research sources available. Primary data could be gleaned not only by face-to-face research questions and interviews conducted on student respondents and personal interviews with the Directors, or Principals of the Institutions, but also from other indirect sources like police records, health care professional assessments and psychiatrist evaluations of students involved in incidence of binge drinking in the past. In addition to this, college records, memos and show cause notices issued to students in the past also serve as primary data in order to gain valuable insight into the incidence and nature of college drinking on campus. 5. Provision of feedback for the interventionist procedures: As has occurred in the past, the delay and snags in the execution, feedback and implementation of previous research recommendations has been a major factor in tardy progress in this area of college alcohol studies. Therefore, it has become imperative that the fallout of the research studies is implemented without delay in order to gain maximum advantages. However it needs to be cautioned, that it would be a misnomer, or deviation from reality, to believe that past research could be used as a basis on which future research could be based, or emulated. It is necessary that college authorities devise their own theories and practices which could effectively meet the individualized needs of the institution. Hence it is best if each institution position itself to work out its research strategy in co-ordination with the research team that could serve as bedrock for current alcohol prevention programme. They also need to ensure that prevention program are implemented as planned and work to reduce the incidence of alcohol -related incidents. Otherwise the human efforts and funds directed towards to research, and its implementation, would be an exercise in futility, with no real gains. Importance of key factors while taking up experimentation: A crucial factor that needs to be considered is that of evaluation. It is necessary that an impartial objective analysis and evaluation is considered before the modalities for its implementation are worked out. A simple illustration could drive the point. It is considered belief that health awareness campaigns are launched on campuses, designed to alleviate the drinking levels of students. This would allude that every student drinks which may not be a fact, considering a large section of commuter students, who alienate with drinking peer groups and are non-residents in the hostel settings. To consider them as drinkers would be an affront to their characters. This programme may not be effective under such settings. Further such campaigns encourage moderation in drinking, and not total abstinence and clampdown on campus drinking, the latter being the primary objective of the college authorities while evaluating and designing the stated campaign. Such campaigns serve to moderate drinking and not ban it. Such campaigns which serve only to curb but not eliminate, could not be termed as successful, since it has not served the purpose of its evaluation. Thus the evaluation of the perceived program is as important as its implementation. Since policies and programmed could be misinterpreted or misleading, it is necessary to have evaluators who could be trusted to offer a sense of direction and specificity to the research studies. As is often the case, opinions may differ on important matters relating to research and different official may form different opinions which could result in impracticable or ill designed research studies which do not serve the intended purpose. As has been earlier mentioned earlier in this study paper, there are different populations from which sample respondents could be drawn into the study; it could either be done at an individualized level or a group or community level, and at the highest level, it could be done at a Regional or Federal level, depending upon the available resources and the objectives and goals of the study team. But what is of greater significance is that a realistic and practical assessment of resources are carried out which could maximize the probability of success in a well defined target population sample. There are several aspects which govern research and they are: 1. Changing the students’ attitude and perceptions regarding the use of alcohol use 2. Reducing or overcoming the environmental factors that impinge the problem of heavy alcohol consumption. 3. Ensuring the safety and personal security of students under transient influence of alcohol abuse. 4. Ensuring appropriate interventionist strategy in the cases of students under the addiction of alcohol dependency and related conditions evaluated and the areas of lacunae could be localized and pinpointed, should the project fail to achieve its final objectives Based on the factors mentioned above, and on its practical implementation, it has been decided to take up a research experiment involving 30 college students from the neighboring district as respondents for this experiment. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty students (of more or less similar IQs and backgrounds) from the local University, 15 girls and 15 boys (out of which 7 girls and equal number of boys are teetotalers) would be tested as participants for this research study. Their average age is 17 years and they have no previous history of alcoholism related problems. Prior permission of their parents to subject the respondents for research test studies have been sought and obtained. MATERIALS: Prepared questionnaires would be distributed to all participants. The tests and personal interviews (conducted before the tests) and responses to Questionnaires would be recorded live on audio cassettes/CDs TIME AND PLACE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY: The research would begin at 8.00 A.M. at the Board Room, situate in Main University Campus, on Sunday, 21 October 2007. PROCEDURE: Each respondent would be personally interviewed and answers sought for Questionnaires. They would then be briefed about the entire test procedure before the beginning of the research experiment. This entails first, handing over test questions containing 60 questions to be answered fully in 5 hour duration. At the end of the first hour, each non-drinking respondent would be given a placebo drink, while drinker respondents would be served with alcoholic drinks. They would be asked to proceed answering the test paper. Subsequently, at each hourly interval, placebos to non drinkers and real alcohol to the regular drinkers would be served. The effect of alcohol would be assessed at hourly intervals, in terms of the questions attempted and solved and the general state of health of the respondent. Specialized research officials, psychologists and health care professionals would be closely monitoring the outcome of this research study, at each stage on hourly basis. At the end of the session, a comparative analysis of the performance of the drinkers, vis-à-vis, the non drinkers would be made in terms of the proportion of answers solved by each category – drinkers and non drinkers, with hourly rests. RESULTS: Duration of research experiment Answers attempted by Drinkers (cumulative) Answers attempted by Non-drinkers (cumulative) After the 1st Hour 10 13 After the 2nd Hour 23 25 After the 3rd Hour 30 42 After the 4th Hour 35 53 After the 5th Hour 32 58 There were certain other aspects to this study when 3 girls (drinkers) and 1 girl (non drinker) passed out at the end of the 3rd round. Besides another 2 students (1 boy and 1 girl) fell ill at the end of the 4th round and had to leave the research room. Their answers have been invalidated from the scope of this research study. This experiment has conclusively proved that alcohol dullens young minds and impedes and interferes with their faculty for clear headed thinking, problem solving and use of mental faculties. There has been progressive deterioration of the solving abilities in that the progressive incremental figures, at the end of each hour for drinkers has been 13,7,5, 3 during the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th stages of the experiment which is far below the expected standard figures. Another factor that has resulted from this study is that while the drinkers could muster only 32 answers, the teetotalers had, amongst them answered 58 numbers. Thus, my research hypothesis based on the premise that excessive alcohol interferes with the functioning of young minds, causing mental debility& lack of mental co-ordination, affecting academic performance has been proved correct The AMA report on the effects of alcohol on the brains of adolescents takes note of a study comparing magnetic resonance imaging of the brains of 14- to 21-year-olds who abused alcohol with those of non-drinkers. That study found that drinkers had about 10 percent smaller hippocampus—the area of the brain that handles memory and learning. Researchers call such a reduction significant and possibly irreversible Moreover, recent research has found that “many of the brain areas undergoing dramatic developmental change during adolescence are sensitive to ethanol. Ethanol use during adolescence may alter the developmental processes ongoing in these brain regions and hence may have different consequences than similar amounts of ethanol exposure in adulthood.” (Spear, Linda Patia. 2007). (National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 2006). It is relevant to mention in this context the words pronounced by Ms. Susan Resneck Pierce, President, University of Puget Sound, and she says” Excessive student drinking contributes to failed academic performance ranging from missed classes to attrition. At the same time many colleges and Universities unwittingly create a culture of student drinking by scheduling no classes on Friday, thereby creating 3 day weekends and by grade inflation which tolerates ands even rewards minimal student performance.” (Changing the culture of drinking at US Colleges. 2002). Ethical Considerations of the experiment: Since the respondents are underage (average 17 years) it has been deemed necessary to seek parental consent before test experiments. It is also necessary to protect the findings of the interviews and responses to the Questionnaires answered by the respondents. Since some of the queries of the Questionnaire are of personal nature, it is necessary to ensure confidentiality in its usage, since its contents could be used to malign their images, at a later stage of their college lives. Further, considering the fact that the respondents are underage, due consideration is also being attached to the correct evaluation, treatment and rehabilitation of the alcoholic problems in order that these students would grow up to become useful citizens and would discharge their responsibilities with sincerity and diligence. Independent and Dependent Variables: Through this experiment, it is now known that “that a broad array of factors affects college student drinking behavior. These include an individuals susceptibility to alcohol, campus norms related to drinking, and conditions within the larger community that make alcohol readily accessible and fail to penalize inappropriate use.” (Kington, 2005). The students environment at home may encourage drinking and this may be significant independent variable in this study. The cheap and easy availability of liquor is also a factor for consideration. Another finding of the experiment carried out on these respondents has been that it has been conclusively proved that consumption of excessive alcohol is injurious to health. Analysis and Conclusions: It has been rightly adjudged that the causes of binge or episodic drinking among college students are due to a host of reasons, transition from childhood to adulthood, personal stress and a number of psychological , physiological and environment- generated factors. This malaise could not be attributed to any one dependent variable, since a variety of factors, extraneous and internal contribute to the habit. Besides, the age of adolescence is an age transition to adulthood. Therefore, the need for proclaiming newborn adult freedom and social independence asserts itself in many ways and binge drinking could just be one manifestation of these difficult transitions.. Further, the need for acceptance by peer groups and circles that inebriate may be another cause for regular alcohol craving by students besides the need to reduce academic stress and pressures from parents for attaining or enhancing academic achievements. “Rather than blame students for their behavior or try to persuade them to stop drinking, participants in A Matter of Degree are identifying the environmental factors such as alcohol advertising and marketing, institutional policies and practices, local ordinances—even social and cultural beliefs and behaviors—that converge to encourage alcohol abuse, and work together to create positive changes.”(A Matter of Degree.2007). However, it also needs to be understood that, given the nature and magnitude of this issue, it is necessary to take due perspective of all aspects of the issue before initiating action plans for the future. As rightly pointed out by Mr. Edward Malloy, President of the University of Notre Dame, “It is not realistic to expect that colleges can eradicate alcohol problems among students, given the complexity of the issues and the role of alcohol in the broader social culture. But we can work to prevent alcohol-induced behavior that violates our sense of peace and security and that makes us passive contributors to the degradation of student lives.” (Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges. 2002). ------------ End ----------------------- APPENDIX 1 Figure 1. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Year: 2002-2005 Figure 1 Table. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Year: 2002-2005     2002 2003 2004 2005 Past Month Alcohol Use Past Month Alcohol Use 57.4 58.8 56.3 58.7 Binge Alcohol Use Binge Alcohol Use 40.4 39.4 40.2 40.4 Heavy Alcohol Use Heavy Alcohol Use 16.6 15.7 16.9 17.1 Source: SAMHSA, 2002-2005 NSDUHs. Figure 2. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Gender: 2002-2005 Figure 2 Table. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Gender: 2002-2005   Male Female Past Month Alcohol Use 60.4 55.6 Binge Alcohol Use 46.9 34.4 Heavy Alcohol Use 22.7 11.5 Figure 3. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Age: 2002-2005 Figure 3 Tables. Past Month, Binge, and Heavy Alcohol Use among Full-Time College Students Aged 18 to 20, by Age: 2002-2005   18 19 20 Past Month Alcohol Use 52.5 56.8 63.4 Binge Alcohol Use 36.5 39.6 43.5 Heavy Alcohol Use 13.9 16.6 18.8 Source: SAMHSA, 2002-2005 NSDUHs. Sources of charts and diagrams cited above: (National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 2006). APPENDIX 2 The consequences of excessive and underage drinking affect virtually all college campuses, college communities, and college students, whether they choose to drink or not. Death: 1,400 college students between the ages of 18 and 24 die each year from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, including motor vehicle crashes (Hingson et al., 2002). Injury: 500,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are unintentionally injured under the influence of alcohol (Hingson et al., 2002). Assault: More than 600,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are assaulted by another student who has been drinking (Hingson et al., 2002). Sexual Abuse: More than 70,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 are victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape (Hingson et al., 2002). Unsafe Sex: 400,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 had unprotected sex and more than 100,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 report having been too intoxicated to know if they consented to having sex (Hingson et al., 2002). Academic Problems: About 25 percent of college students report academic consequences of their drinking including missing class, falling behind, doing poorly on exams or papers, and receiving lower grades overall (Engs et al., 1996; Presley et al., 1996a, 1996b; Wechsler et al., 2002). Health Problems/Suicide Attempts: More than 150,000 students develop an alcohol-related health problem (Hingson et al., 2002) and between 1.2 and 1.5 percent of students indicate that they tried to commit suicide within the past year due to drinking or drug use (Presley et al., 1998). Drunk Driving: 2.1 million students between the ages of 18 and 24 drove under the influence of alcohol last year (Hingson et al., 2002). Vandalism: About 11 percent of college student drinkers report that they have damaged property while under the influence of alcohol (Wechsler et al., 2002). Property Damage: More than 25 percent of administrators from schools with relatively low drinking levels and over 50 percent from schools with high drinking levels say their campuses have a “moderate” or “major” problem with alcohol-related property damage (Wechsler et al., 1995).  Police Involvement: About 5 percent of 4-year college students are involved with the police or campus security as a result of their drinking (Wechsler et al., 2002) and an estimated 110,000 students between the ages of 18and 24 are arrested for an alcohol-related violation such as public drunkenness or driving under the influence(Hingson et al., 2002). Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: 31 percent of college students met criteria for a diagnosis of alcohol abuse and 6 percent for a diagnosis of alcohol dependence in the past 12 months, according to questionnaire-based self-reports about their drinking.  (Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges. 2002).     APPENDIX 3 QUESTIONAIRE (for individual respondents) 1. What was the number of drinks consumed during a drinking session in the past 30 days? 2. What was the number of drinking sessions in the last 30 days? 3. What was the number of sessions when you drank enough liquor to become stone Drunk in the last 30 days? 4. What was the quantity of drinks consumed during these sessions? 5. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to slacken in studies? 6. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you not to use protection during sexual encounters? 7. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to damage private or public properties? 8. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to injure or hurt yourself? 9. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to injure or hurt others? 10. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to drive under the influence of alcohol, outside safe limits? 11. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to miss a class or absent yourself from college? 12. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to miss a class, or absent yourself from college? 13. Since the beginning of college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to do Something which you regretted later on? 14. Since the beginning of college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to Forget where you were? 15. Since the beginning of the college year, how often has your inebriation caused you to have serious health problems which necessitated psychiatric intervention or hospital Stay? Note: For the purpose of securing privacy, individual replies to this questionnaire would not be used except for the intended purpose of research studies. The identities of the respondents would be kept private and confidential. APPENDIX4 Personal Data (to be collected from Respondents) 1. Your Name: Middle/ name: Surname: 2. Local Address: 3. Hostel Address (if any) 4. Contact Phone Number: 5. Name of parents/guardians with addresses and contact phone numbers: 6. Age as on 01st October, 2007: Years: Months: Days: 7. Are you underage for drinking as per law? 8. Are you aware of the fact that underage drinking is a cognizable offence? 9. Do you drive a vehicle? Cycle / Two wheeler / Automobile any other kind of vehicle 10. Have you ever been arrested for driving under the influence of over limits alcohol? : 11. What were the results of your arrest and subsequent release? 12. Have you ever been hospitalized for conditions caused by alcoholic dependence? Give details? 13. What were the end results of your treatment and recovery? 14. What in your opinion is a safe limit for student drinking? 15. Do you maintain limits to your drinking habits? How much? 16. What would be your advice to younger students resorting to binge drinking? 17. Any other matter of personal significance: Note: For the purpose of securing privacy, individual replies to this questionnaire would not be used, except for the intended purpose of research studies. The identities of the respondents would be kept private and confidential. Works cited Talk to your child about alcohol. (2007). College Drinking. Make a difference. Retrieved 18 October, from http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/OtherAlcoholInformation/makeDifference.aspx#Talkingwith Wechsler, Henry et al. Journal of American College Health. Underage College Students’ Drinking Behavior. Access to Alcohol and the Influence of Deterrence Policies. Vol.50. No.5. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/march02/underage.pdf Welcher, Henry et al. Journal of American College Health. Underage College Students’ Drinking Behavior. Access to Alcohol, and the influence of Deterrence Policies. Vol.50. No.5. P. 223-236. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/underminimum/ Linda Patia.Spear (2007). The Adolescent Brain and the College Drinker. Biological Basis of Propensity to Use and Misuse alcohol. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/SupportingResearch/Journal/spear.asp Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges. (2002). Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/media/TaskForceReport.pdf National Institute of Health. (2004). NIAAA. NIH News. Retrieved October17, 2007, from http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NewsEvents/NewsReleases/UnderAge.htm Harmful Consequences of Alcohol Use on the Brains of Children, Adolescents, and College Students. (2007). American Medical Association. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://www.amaassn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/harmful_consequences.pdf Kington, Raynard. (2005). NIAAA. Comment from the Institute. College drinking. Retrieved October 18, 2007, from http://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/NIAAACollegeMaterials/TaskForce/Comment_00.aspx A Matter of Degree. (2007). Wasted Youth: The facts: The National effort to reduce High-Risk Drinking among College Students. AMA. Retrieved October 18, 2007, from http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/3558.html National Survey on Drug Use and Health. (2006). Underage Alcohol Use Among full-time college students. Retrieved October 18, 2007, from http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k6/college/collegeUnderage.htm                       Read More