Job Design and Employee Motivation - Essay Example

ESSAY JOB DESIGN AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION A good job design is an important feature of a strong organization and successful business. It motivates an efficient workforce and can be a product of sound management. It also creates a good working atmosphere or workplace for the worker or employee. Job design is a continuous process, ever changing, and in consonance with the needs of the people in the business. It is like producing a one whole show, with all the actors, the stage design, the script, the directing all planned and executed to make a successful performance. In this paper, we will deal on the traditional and contemporary approaches to job design which can impact on employee motivation. TRADITIONAL APPROACH ON JOB DESIGN The old guys say, "It all depends on the manager." In the traditional sense, managers had the absolute say in man's activities, most specifically in business. While this was later thought of as a misconception, it wasn't treated at all drastically because, as they say, bad habits last long. Another misconception is that people, the laborers, can be rewarded with money, so that if you hire the right people in your business, and then feed them with the necessary monetary remunerations, that is, financial rewards, business goes on and successfully. There are many past misconceptions when it comes to job design or practices in the work place. Over time, these so-called misconceptions changed. Managers, researchers, economists and social scientists have been searching ways to produce a job design that best suit a worker in a factory or an employee in the office so that he can be where he is most effective without the extra cost on the part of the company. In short, we are talking here of a good working atmosphere for a job in a particular company, so that the worker becomes effective where he is most needed, there are no extra costs or over spending in the company, or that the worker is accurately placed in the job. His performance affects the entire company and, therefore, the whole business. Minimization in jobs and maximum output should be in the mind of the manager. And the manager or owner of business wants to put this in the mind of the employee: let him think like he is the owner of the company; let him look forward for progress of the company, and so on. If the manager and employee agree or there is meeting of the minds, the organization will be benefited. PAST PRACTICES Let's take a look at some of past practices. In the 1950's, Louis Davis reported a survey in job designs which stated that there were variations and that there was no systematic approach to the different levels in the job. The purpose of the survey was how to get minimal costs in performing a task. Davis used these criteria in job design: economic considerations, technical considerations, time and space, skill requirements, machinery or equipment needed, and industrial relations, that is, regarding to management or union agreements relating to staffing levels and wages. He also took note of the traditions, customs and norms of the plants. Davis discovered a considerable variance in policies towards job design and that there was no systematic approach to it. In a period in business and commerce, known as post-industrial societies, some practices known as counter productive organizational environments could be found. Managers and job designers ignored the psychological and social aspects of work. In the past, these aspects were totally ignored and greatly affected the working force. Responsibility was in the hands of the manager. Accountability follows. While in the present set up, the success of the company is placed in a broader perspective. The employee is made accountable and added more responsibilities. In the 1980's, major changes took place in the workplace: Recession, with attendant retrenchments Increased competition Recognition of the need to introduce new technology Shift in relative costs away from the worker to the machine and or process2 Organizations had to work overtime to cope with these challenges. Job designs had to be reworked and remodeled according to needs, plus the fact that companies had to minimize costs in order to survive. Over time these challenges doubled or tripled and management had to be expert enough to motivate their employees and work force to maintain competitive. There must have been transition in job design where people involved in the running of business have to work as a team. They are not anymore to work as individuals competing with each other, each surviving for themselves alone. JOB DESIGN DEFINED The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, Canada's National Occupational health and Safety Resource, gives a well-defined concept on job design. It refers to the way that a set of tasks, or an entire job, is organized. The CCOHS seeks to dissect what a task is, in defining job design. Job design helps to determine what tasks are done, how the tasks are done, how many tasks are done, and in what order the tasks are done.3 In short, it is set in a manner that the welfare of the employee or laborer is the primary concern, and takes into account all factors which affect the work. It can involve areas on job rotation, enlargement, task/machine pacing, work breaks, and work hours. It deals with the many facets of work. A well designed job will encourage a variety of 'good' body positions, have reasonable strength requirements, require a reasonable amount of mental activity, and help foster feelings of achievement and self-esteem. The employee or worker must be in such a condition that he can deliver the maximum output at a minimum cost. So he must be well-conditioned, and his psychological, mental, social, physical needs are therefore met. Job design is also defined as the specification of the contents, method and relationships of jobs to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the personal needs of job holders.4 It is instituted in order to prevent such problems as work overload or underload, repetitiveness, limited control over work, isolation, shiftwork, delays in filling vacant positions, excessive working hours, and limited understanding of the whole job process. In other words, this is what the employee or the working man has got to do in the office or in a plant. His entire work performance is on study, whether he is working too hard, or he is underworking, or he maybe producing tasks that are not anymore necessary, and effecting much costs on the company. Companies spend much in instituting reforms. They also hire consultants to conduct study and recommend measures that would help in instituting minimal costs to jobs and the workforce. Sherman Jr., Bohlander & Chruden say this: Improving an organization's external environment is, to a large extent, beyond an employer's control. However, improving the organization's internal environment is definitely within the realm of an employer's influence. A major challenge confronting employers today is that of improving the quality of life (QWL). (p.53). Internal environment also refers to job design, for here we can refer to the atmosphere inside the plant or working area where the worker spends much of his time delivering service or producing quality goods. He can't produce quality goods and service if internal environment is inadequate. Quality of life is paramount and synonymous with job design. Roberto Encarnacion, in his essay Job Design, says it more clearly: "Job design serves to improve performance and motivation. Job-design analysis starts by looking at a job with a broad perspective and swiftly moves toward identifying the specific activities required to do the job. This is done for the purpose of identifying and correcting any deficiencies that affect performance and motivation." Encarnacion sets the goal on performance and motivation. The employee is set in an atmosphere where he can think for the good of the company, work well for the advancement of himself and the organization. He sets a goal for himself and the organization where he or she belongs. Sherman, Jr. et al. has much to say on job design: Job design is an outgrowth of job analysis and is concerned with the design of jobs in order to improve organization efficiency and employee job satisfaction. (p.111) CONCEPTS OF JOB DESIGN Job design has many concepts and purposes. It maybe interchangeably used with workplace design because it contributes to keep the physical requirements of a job reasonable. In a processing plant, for example, several technical, procedural, and maybe, cultural practices are in place which give a smooth flow of the product, and ease and comfort, on the part of the worker or the plant laborer, including the manager and other plant employees. Technical aspects, safety measures, detail and shifting are also in place. Administrative changes that can help improve working conditions have to be enforced. These administrative changes can be worked over time, they are not permanent but continuously changing to the benefits of both employees and clients. Workplace design, however, concentrates on dealing with the workstation, the tools, and the body position that all influence the way a person does his or her work. Good workplace design reduces static positions, repetitive motions and awkward body positions. A worker may get sick if he is not well stationed. Or he might not be able to deliver the quality of service needed of him. Designing jobs does not have clear rules. There are varied range of skills and potentials that people in different cultures or workplace bring, and they are of different experiences, aspirations, expectations, or maybe motivations. It must consider the different factors varied in different places and workers of distinct orientation. Responsible organizations have a great task of striking a balance between the needs of the organization to achieve goals and the creation of a working environment that would result in job satisfaction for employees. CCOHS also enumerated the features of a "good" job design. It takes into consideration the employees' mental and physical characteristics, stating the muscular energy such as work/rest schedules or pace of work, and the mental energy such as boring versus extremely difficult tasks. A good job design allows for employees to give input, or that employees should be given leeway to vary activities according to their personal needs, work habits, and the circumstances in the workplace. They must be given a sense of accomplishment and act as real managers, allowed to make decisions, and be accountable to them. The present trend is employees must act as if they own the company because in so doing they look after the welfare and advancement of the company, which is their own. Good job design also includes training and seminars for the employees so that they will know what tasks to do and how to do them properly and effectively. Training and seminars allow for the employees to recharge and know new and effective techniques, as well as gain more social interaction among peers and counterpart employees or workers of other establishments. The company must also provide a good work and rest schedules, allow an adjustment period for physically demanding jobs and provide feedback to the employees about their performance. The management, in making a well-defined job design, must address work overload, work underload, repetitiveness, limited control over work, isolation, shiftwork, delays in filling vacant positions, excessive working hours, and limited understanding of the whole job process. This means the exactness of work. If an employee is overloaded with tasks, he can't produce quality service and goods. If he is not working according to his/her job description or required time, company loses on this particular employee. Motivation is a factor in job design. If the employee is extra-motivated - and this is the job of management - he can work much and produce much to the benefit of the organization. That is one aim of job design - great output to benefit both the organization and the client or the direct consumer. The present trend of job design looks for variety. It does not anymore rely much on the manager but takes into consideration the many factors involved. It also gives weight on surveys in the job to find out what the workers really want, what their problems are, the stress factor, and so on. Job design is very often used for a group of employees. Teams can be created that have an overall responsibility for larger task or set of tasks. It is up to the team to decide how the job will be accomplished, which individual will do what tasks, and when. In most cases, team members will have many skills which allow them to change jobs from time to time. As with job design for individuals, additional opportunities such as inspection / quality control, maintenance, and related tasks such as ordering supplies are often assigned to the team in addition to their regular tasks. When work demands physical effort, have an adjustment period for new employees and for all employees after holidays, layoffs, or illnesses. Allow time to become accustomed to the physical demands of work by gradually "getting in shape." Employees who work in extreme hot or cold conditions also need time to acclimatize. Training in correct work procedures and equipment operation is needed so that employees understand what is expected of them and how to work safely. Training should be organized, consistent and ongoing. It may occur in a classroom or on the job. Tasks should be coordinated so that they are balanced during the day for the individual employee as well as balanced among a group of employees. You may want to allow the employee some degree of choice as to what types of mental tasks they want to do and when. This choice will allow the employee to do tasks when best suited to their 'alertness' patterns during the day. Some people may prefer routine tasks in the morning Methods of Job Design Encarnacion states that the performance technologist has at his or her disposal four methods of job design. The first, job enlargement, can be used to increase motivation by giving employee's more and varied tasks. Tasks that reduce the amount of specialization required by the employee, as well as, extending the length of time he or she has to complete them. The second, job rotation, allows an employee to work in different departments or jobs in an organization to gain better insight into operations. This, in itself, does not modify or redesigns the employee's job, but allows the opportunity to increase his/her skills and knowledge about other jobs. Sherman et al, has this to say on job enlargement: The term enlargement sometimes referred to as the horizontal loading of jobs, consists of increasing the number and variety of tasks to the job. Enlarged jobs help to relieve boredom by having the employee perform multiple jobs. (p.114) By having employees work other jobs, they are able to concentrate, although not to the extent of overloading. It must be done only to motivate them to produce more or work forward for more output for the organization. Sherman et al, further states that in job design and problem of overspecialization, similar duties and tasks typically are combined into a job to facilitate the selection, training, and supervision of personnel who are to perform it. This can be monotonous and therefore counterproductive. This is what they call overspecialization.(p. 113) Job Enrichment Any effort that makes work more rewarding or satisfying by adding more meaningful tasks to an employee's job is called job enrichment. Originally popularized by Fredrick Herzberg, as cited by Sherman et al, job enrichment is touted as fulfilling the high motivational needs of employees, such as self-fulfillment and self-esteem, while achieving long-term job satisfaction and performance goals. Job enrichment or the vertical expansion of jobs, may be accomplished by increasing the autonomy and responsibility of employees.(p.115) The concepts of both job rotation and enlargement do not have their basis in any psychological theory. However, the next generation of attempts to redesign jobs emerging from the USA developed from the researches of Frederick Herzberg. During the 1950's and 1960's Herzberg developed his 'two factor' theory of motivation. In this theory he separated 'motivators' from 'hygiene' factors. The hygiene factors included salary, company policies and administration as well as supervision. They were seen as potential sources of dissatisfaction but not of positive motivation. Another set of factors including achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, growth and the work itself were postulated as the 'real' motivators. From this theory Herzberg developed a set of principles for the enrichment of jobs as follows: removing some controls while retaining accountability; increasing personal accountability for work; assigning each worker a complete unit of work with a clear start and end point; granting additional authority and freedom to workers; making periodic reports directly available to workers rather than to supervisors only; the introduction of new and more difficult tasks into the job; encouraging the development of expertise by assigning individuals to specialized tasks. Herzberg's Checklist Herzberg's other major contribution to the development of ideas in the area of job design was his checklist for implementation. This is a prescription for those seeking success in the enrichment of jobs: select those jobs where technical changes are possible without major expense; job satisfaction is low; performance improvement is likely with increases in motivation; hygiene is expensive; examine the jobs selected with the conviction that changes can be introduced; 'green light' or 'brainstorm' a list of possible changes; screen the list (red lighting) for hygiene suggestions and retain only ideas classed as motivators; remove the generalities from the list retaining only specific motivators; avoid employee involvement in the design process; set up a controlled experiment to measure the effects of the changes; anticipate an early decline in performance as workers get used to their new jobs. CONCLUSION The many aspects of job design to improve the quality of work life have to be instituted to motivate the employee in his/job. There must be job enrichment programs to provide opportunities for employees to exercise more autonomy in performing their jobs. Improvement in the qualify of work life can motivate the employee and create positive psychological states. DISCUSS: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IS COSTLY, TIME CONSUMING AND THERE IS NO GUARANTEE THAT IT WILL IMROVE EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE The importance of training and development can not be underestimated. Training and development is always a part of any organization's program or task. This is how the personnel start his career in the organization. He or she is going to introduce his potential into a system and if he is not well prepared to do so, the system that he is going to be a part of may fail. Training and development makes him well prepared. You can't send a soldier to war without having him trained, fully and well, for battle. Haig (1984) has this definition for training: Training may be defined as any procedure initiated by an organization to foster learning among organizational members. The primary purpose of a training program is to help achieve the overall organizational objectives. At the same time, an effective training program must demonstrably contribute to the satisfaction of the trainee's personal goals. (as cited in Sherman et al., 1988, p.199). Wikipedia site in the internet has this definition: In organizational development, the related field of training and development deals with the design and delivery of learning to improve performance within organizations. In some organizations the term Learning & Development is used instead of Training and Development in order to emphasize the importance of learning for the individual and the organization. In other organizations, the term Human Resource Development is used. Training is a relevant aspect in the life of an organization. The staff and working force have to continually learn, and acquire more knowledge pertaining to their job. Training has an objective: advancement of the individual, and achieving of organizational objectives. They may be costly at times but they are for the good of the organization. In the Wikipedia definition, training's primary goal is performance of individuals in an organization. When we speak of performance in an organization or business, we refer to the quality of goods and services that the company delivers. What can be more important than quality Companies or businesses rely on their employees for quality of their goods and services. If customers complain or refuse their goods and services, that's the end of it. LOGIC BEHIND TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT A new employee who is about to apply his or her skills into an organization has to be oriented into the intricacies in the workplace. He must be well equipped with the necessary training and well oriented about the job that he is going to handle in the company. He is introduced into a new organization, therefore he must have, at least, an expert knowledge about the things, the equipment and procedure in the workplace. An employee has to be oriented about: the system, company policies, the cultural practices of the company, the new bosses, the equipment, the workplace, etc. In his new assignment, he needs orientation and socialization. Orientation is defined as the formal process of familiarizing new employees to the organization, their job, and the work unit. It should provide new employees with an understanding of how job performance contributes to the success of the organization. Socialization is the process through which new employees acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that make them successful organizational members. (Sherman et al., p.194). The introduction of new technology, new system equipment being introduced into the plant or area of work, makes the employee much in need of training. If he is not well informed of such new technology various things may happen to him: he could destroy this new equipment, he could hurt himself in the process, and he can not deliver the necessary quality of goods and services. That could be more costly than giving the necessary training and development or sending an employee to a university for extra units in college. Every field of man's endeavour needs introduction and improvement. This is the purpose of training and development. There are new methods and ever changing styles of production in the work area, in plants and industries that the employee has to be well knowledgeable about. Sherman et al. summarized the role of training and development: Because of rapid changes in technology and the growth of organizations into large, complex operations, training and development programs are vital to an organization's success. In recent years such programs have broadened their scope to include the career development of personnel at all levels. A development program begins with the important process of orientation. (p. 217) On-the-job Training On-the-job training is a common training among young graduates of vocational schools. The young graduate is oriented in the office, bank, or manufacturing firm, and is supervised by experienced personnel of the respective establishment. This is one of the initial trainings for prospective employees. The individual is provided hands-on experience under normal working conditions. The primary objective is to give him/her the necessary experience once he becomes part of a working force in the office or business establishment. TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IS COSTLY Should company or business be concerned about the high cost of training and development Should this be discarded or the company must look for other ways to improve employee motivation and other improvement in the job to save money The questions are academic. Even the definition of training and development is self explanatory. Training and development is one (that's why it's singular). It is inseparable. It concerns the development of the employee, from mere individual to a distinguished employee, equipped with knowledge and expertise in the job. He becomes an expert in the field. He must not be innocent of even the simplest tool inside the plant or office he is working at. Training and development can be costly, yes. But it is a must, a requirement for any organization because of the broader roles that each and every employee has to function. In big businesses, there could be hundreds of tasks to perform, and hundreds or thousands of employees have to do the various tasks, which may be unique in some aspects. These can not be learned overnight. They have to be well versed, well informed and masters of the tasks. With rapid growth and advancement of organizations, personnel handling the various jobs must also grow and be more knowledgeable. They are to continuously update their skills and knowledge about their jobs, about their equipment and the system that they are in. Training and development is always a part of it. Sherman et al. contend that this is a continuous process. They have more to say: Since an organization is faced with ever-changing conditions, its plans, policies, and procedures must change with these conditions. Unless current employees are kept up to date on these changes, they may embarrassingly find themselves unaware of activities about which new employees are being advised. While the discussion that follows focuses primarily upon the needs of new employees, it is important that all employees be continually reoriented to changing conditions. (p.196). The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety says in its website: Training in correct work procedures and equipment operation is needed so that employees understand what is expected of them and how to work safely. Training should be organized, consistent and ongoing. It may occur in a classroom or on the job. (CCOHS, n.d.) Training and development may have advantages and disadvantages with respect to other HRM functions. A knowledgeable staff must study and implement the activity. Sherman et al. summarized the relationship of training and development to other HRM functions: Training and Development Other HRM Functions Availability of training can aid recruitment = Recruitment may provide source of efforts trainees. (Recruitment) Availability of training may permit hiring = Effective selection may reduce of less qualified applicants training needed. (Selection) Training and development aids in the = Performance appraisal provides achievement of performance standards. basis for determining training needs and results. (Performance Appraisal) Training and development can lead to = Compensation can motivate higher rate of pay. training efforts. (Compensation Management) Training program may include a role for = Union cooperation can facilitate the union. training efforts. (Labor Relations) (p.195) Some employees are already experienced and knowledgeable of the work when they enter a certain organization. Desire for advancement and higher pay might have forced them to seek new jobs. They might have knowledge of the system, or of a similar workplace in other companies, and all they need now is some orientation and a little acquaintance of the job to get started. This is an advantage on the part of the company, could be attributed to the resourcefulness of Human Resource personnel. Using good advertisements in various media, added with masterful recruitment techniques can add to acquiring new experienced personnel. The new employee can only be reoriented to the job with less cost for training and development on part of the management. The staff and work force have to achieve improvement through team building. This can be achieved through on the job or training in the workplace or may be in a training site specifically made for the purpose. Some companies may have their own training centre or conference/seminar halls to provide this purpose. Workshop is a part of training methodology. Team building workshop is one part of training where peers can practice and develop working as a group. In this process, role playing can be used during the team building process to enable the participants to examine the organizational environment from differing perspectives. Sherman et al. suggest: As the individual continues on the job, training provides opportunities to acquire new knowledge and skills. As a result of training, the individual may then be more effective on the job and may qualify for jobs at a higher level. (p.199) The individual may advance to higher position and becomes motivated to do more. Training can become a motivational factor for the employee. He is well equipped, confident and can therefore be trusted to a higher position or a more sensitive job. Accel team introduces team building as part of training and development: Delegates attending our team building workshop will critically focus on how their organization operates, what it does, why it does it, where things are done, how they are done, who does what, and to what effect. Workshop, which is training itself, can truly put the individual in the actual job and becomes much acquainted with the organization he/she is in. Through a step-by-step technique, the individual will grasp the true picture. He becomes a part of the organization, and the organization becomes a part of him. His activity will be for the betterment of the company and business. Training must be developed systematically. It is for the good of the organization, therefore it must be a regular feature in the activities of the personnel, or a part of the whole process of being a part of the company or organization. If training is done hazily, without proper scheduling, evaluation and programming, it would be a waste of time and resources on the part of the company. Managers and Human Resource staff members should also be alert for indicators of training needs. If the employees failed to produce quality products or did not meet production standards, or they saw a lapse in supervisory processes, it would be time to recommend training. An assessment phase should be in order. (Sherman et al., p.201). If there is a need for training, as recommended by HR Managers, the next step should be to develop an environment conducive to learning or training. A strategy and instructional plans must be formulated, out of the goals set forth in the training. The cost for training will also have to be discussed, and the possible outcome. CONCLUSION Companies or organizations that regularly, and religiously, incorporate policies on training and development can always look for ways to make training and development less costly. This activity can be made a part of their regular activity, and to be handled by well qualified HR managers to make training and development lively and attractive to personnel. Financial expenses in training and development can be minimized, but programs must continue if the welfare of the entire organization is to be considered. References 1. http://www.accel-team.com/work_design/index.html 2. http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/job_design.html. 3. Sherman, W. S. Jr., Bohlander, G. W., & Chruden, H. J. (1988). Managing Human Resources, 111-124; 194-204. 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_and_development Read More