History of Race in Science - Essay Example

?History of “Race in Science” Introduction Researchers like Carolus Linnaeus have extensively researched the history of race in science also called scientific racism on and his research was expounded further by Johann Blumenbach Friedrich (Gupta 2007, p.26). Johann was a professor in medicine from Germany and through his study of race in science; he was able to carry out classifications based on races. Mankind was classified in various natural varieties and through this classification; the professor was able to base his classification of races into five categories. The identified categories were Caucasian race, Mongolian race, Malayan race, American race, and Ethiopian race (Higgins 1995, p.62). The use of race in science was helpful in the study of general genetics and health, rights of reproduction, and even in the study of anthropology (Harris 2001, p.84). Research methods and research ethics The study of research methods and ethics is vital in the various projects, which require the researcher to draw research conclusions and findings. The use of research ethics equips the researcher with the numerous procedures and policies that will ensure the safety and the quality of the research outcomes. Ethics will also tend to redirect the researchers to shun from the various irresponsible and unaccepted presentation of the various research ideas as in the case of race science (Asseo et al 1997, p.201). This is because avoiding such practices will results into many questions for the researcher and the area of the research. A research is always considered as a public area of concern that should always have trustable conclusions and findings. Having mastered the policies of research ethics, the researcher is therefore, required to employ various techniques of collecting and formulating the research data. These techniques of formulation and collection of research data are called research methods. Proper application of research methods results into trustable research findings and conclusions. The research methods involve the various methodology and literature review that the researcher will employ in determination of the goals and objectives of the research. Lessons that can be withdrawn from history of race in science and research methods and ethics One of the lessons that can be learnt is that the applications of research methods and research ethics should follow some earlier development of issues related to the currently issue which is researched upon. Early developments in race in science were later expounded by Professor Johann from Germany in his classifications of the five human races. The early developments by Carolus Linnaeus acted as enlightenment in the development of human theories, which were later used to study the differences in human races (Barkan 1992, p.65). Apart from Linnaeus Carolus, some of early thinkers who also contributed to history of race in science were Voltaire, Charles Darwin, and David Hume. The early research works became the basis upon which the modern researches were based on. The second lesson that can be learnt is that the application of research methods and ethics should take a given structure to realize the objectives and goals of the research. Like in the case of history of race in science, the early researchers such as the taxonomists would take the race in science study in biological structure. They could study various variations in biological structure and relate that to the study of races. The taxonomists could use any familiar thing that was related to human race to study the various biological variations and the familiar things which were in use were beliefs, values, and attitudes found in different places of the world such as North America and other parts of Europe (Kurtz 2004, p.65). Third, the other lesson that can be learnt from the history of race in science and research methods and research ethics is the duration taken by the various research should not be an issue and the only issue should be completion of the research and achievement of goals and objectives. In the case of the study of Tuskegee Syphilis, the doctors and various officials of the public took a period of close to forty years to determine the cure for this disease (Allan 1978, p.3). The experiment was under the classification of race in science because the specimens were about 400 men and all these men under study were able to die. The 400 men were all black and the research proved to be cumbersome at the beginning prompting the urgent collaboration of all doctors, draft board members, and state and county health officials. The same applies to researches in modern world where the findings could last for more than ten years with the funding that has been invested in it. Fourth, the other lesson learnt is that during research methods and research ethics the various specimens under test at times need to persuaded or even offered monetary packages to enable the specimen to cooperate during conduction of the study. The case of Tuskegee Syphilis was an example of racial study since the disease was more prominent in the black Negros in the Alabama City (Allan 1978, p.11).These conclusions were arrived at after a close supervision of the white race and the black race. Many lusts from the black population towards the white women made them to contract the disease (Dennis 1995, p.46). The persuasion came in around the year 1935 when men would be given close to $ 50 to persuade them to go to the hospitals whenever they were suffering from the Tuskegee Syphilis. Other organizations such as USPHS also gave promises to cater for the burial expenses of all the men who had succumbed to the disease. Fifth, another lesson that can be learnt about research methods and research ethics from history of race in science is that during the applications of research methods to draw conclusions and obtain findings use of comparison should be the basis or foundation for conclusion. The conclusion drawn on a given research method should always benchmark with other existing research methods and ethics. Like in the case of melanin, pigment in differences races the scientists and researchers were able to base their conclusions and findings from comparison methods (Sapp 1987, p.231). They were able to carry out research on white races and black races to enable them to draw conclusions and their conclusions were based upon comparison techniques of the different races. In the case of applications of research methods in areas or fields, which have already been researched, the researchers need to compare and contrast their findings with the findings of the other people who did similar research. Sixth, diversity lesson can also be learnt from race in science. In the history of race in science use of phenotypic methods were employed to give more findings on the races. Phenotypic methods applied elements of study such as noses, curly hair, red hair, and many other elements to draw conclusions on the race in science. The study of race in science also considered study of ancestral cases (Ehrenreich 2007, p.102) to be able to get more relevant information concerning scientific racism. To discover more information concerning different races on medical issues, the geneticists had to extract information concerning DNA of the different races to establish the research concerning behaviour from different races on issues of resistant and adaptations (Sapp 1987, p.231). Research methods and research ethics should also apply use of diversity to be able to gain more information on the various areas of study and the various acceptable approaches that the research should undertake. Failure to apply diversity might results into presentation of under covered information and elements of research. Conclusion The applications of research and research ethics have a lot of borrowing from the history of race in science. The developments of the various cures for diseases like in the case of Tuskegee Syphilis should be borrowed by research methods and research ethics. The applications of research ethics and research methods should also implement various use monetary packages like the case of USPHS organization that had to fund the funeral arrangement of the Tuskegee Syphilis disease to entice many patients to go to the hospital. References Asseo, H., Fings, K., Sparing, F., Kenrick, D. & Heuss, H. 1997. From “race science” to the camps. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press. Allan, M.B. 1978.Racism and Research: Tuskegee Syphilis study. Society, Ethics and the Life Sciences Journal, 1(1): 1-13 Barkan, E. 1992. The Retreat of Scientific Racism. New York: Cambridge University Press. Dennis, R.M. 1995. Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race. Journal of Negro Education, 64 (2): 43-52 Ehrenreich, E. 2007. The Nazi ancestral proof: genealogy, racial science, and the final solution. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Gupta, D.T. 2007. History of Race and Racialization. New York, NY: Prentice Hall Publishers. Higgins, A.C. 1994. Scientific Racism: A Review of The Science and Politics of Racial Research by William H. Tucker. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Harris, M. 2001. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A History of Theories of Culture. New York, NY: Prentice Hall Publishers. Kurtz, P. 2004. Can History of Race in Science Helps us to Make Wise Ethical Judgments, New York, NY: McGraw Hill Publishers. Sapp, J. 1987. Beyond the gene: cytoplasmic inheritance and the struggle for authority in genetics. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. Read More