Sexually-Abused Child Victims as Adult Sexual Offenders - Essay Example

? Sexually-Abused Child Victims as Adult Sexual Offenders: Review of Literature for Conceptual Understanding of Abused-to-Abuser Hypothesis Instructor Class 12 November 2012 Child sexual abuse (CSA) has been increasingly explored through empirical research for the past few decades with special interest in its trajectories (McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011). Child sexual abuse is defined here as the “forced or coerced sexual behavior imposed on a child,” or as “sexual activity between a child and a much older person whether or not obvious coercion is involved” (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986, p. 66). This definition includes the possibility that the child victim allows the sexual act because of manipulation or seduction of the adult. In other words, even if the child consented to the sexual activity, it does not make it any less than sexual abuse because of the involvement of an older person. The literature on the antecedents of adult sexual offending behaviors has highlighted the need for greater research on the connection between sexual victimization and adult sexual offenses (Easton et al., 2011; Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009). The abused-to-abuser hypothesis is a relevant hypothesis because it can result to greater resources provided for the long-term treatment of the psychological wounds of sexual abuse for child victims, which can lead to the prevention of their potential development as sexual offenders. This study is a basic research because it aims to answer fundamental questions about human behavior, specifically the connection between child sexual trauma and adult sexual behaviors (Cozby, 2012; Creswell, 2009). It does not assume that experiencing sexual abuse during childhood is enough to turn them into future adult sexual offenders, including being pedophiles, for instance. Instead, it aims to understand the interconnection of internal and external variables that facilitate the development of adult sexual criminals. For this paper, sexual offenders include predominantly those who sexually abuse children, although they may also sexually assault adolescents and adults. The emphasis is on how some child victims who experienced sexual trauma become sexual offenders and why this happens, despite the existence of publicly-funded treatment for these cases. This matter is of significance to this student because of being personally involved in doing some research on child sexual abuse. This student wants to understand the development path of abused-to-abuser hypothesis and to contribute to the theory and practice that can help stop its progress. In order to reduce bias, criteria in assessing the quality of resources are used, specifically using relevant and recent studies that showed conflicting results, and determining the causes of these discrepancies. This student does not have the goal of proving that the abused-to-abuser is entirely true, but to help shed light on its dynamics and causes. Developmental and behavioral variables are considered to fully understand why some sexually abused children eventually turn into sexual abusers themselves. As basic research, this study aims to be used in applied research also, through providing theories and findings that can result to directions for future research and for directing additional funding to aspects of child psychological care for these particular circumstances (Cozby, 2012). In order to collect information for this study, several empirical studies with experimental, survey research, review, and meta-analysis research designs were employed, so that the etiological and environmental factors that contribute to the development of adult sexually abusive behavior are comprehensively examined. Some of the important aspects of the abused-to-abuser hypothesis are its development pathways from victim to abuser, victimization experiences, and comparison of demographics and personality traits between sexually offending and non-sexually offending adults. They provide a theoretical perspective that helps interpret the results of future studies on child sexual abuse and adult victim-turned-offenders. The primary research question is: Why do some victims of sexual abuse become sexual offenders as adults? The research objectives are: 1) to review existing studies on the validity and prevalence of the abused-to-abuser hypothesis and 2) to present a conceptual framework that can be used for future quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research studies, and 3) to affect policymaking and funding for healthcare of child sexual abuse victims. Review of Literature Family and Criminal Environments For studies on the relationship between child sexual abuse and criminal behaviors, scholars have used social learning theories, such as the “Cycle of Violence” or the “Intergenerational Transmission of Family Violence” (McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). Comparative studies from criminologists, psychologists, and sociologists suggested that child sexual abuse can be related to adult criminal behaviors that are found in the family (Connolly & Woollons, 2008; Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009). McGrath, Nilsen, and Kerley (2011) noted in their literature review that the family context is a significant determinant of child sexual abuse: “Children who live in homes in which intimate partner violence occur have a greater chance of experiencing sexual abuse themselves” (p.485). The existence of female offenders for child victims may also be more harmful than male offenders (Connolly & Woollons, 2008; Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009). This can be due to the belief that women are seen as trustworthy caregivers and when this image is shattered, it damages the psychological welfare of children. Several other studies on learning behaviors can be related to the development of adult criminal outcomes, with the need to consider the study of this topic using psychoanalytical theories. Sutherland (1939) argued that individuals adapt criminal behaviors through socialization processes from inmate groups such as family and peer groups (as cited in McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). Their peers and family members teach them criminal attitudes and train them in conducting criminal actions (as cited in McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). Bandura (1977) proposed that people learn from authority figures and other influential members, such as peers (as cited in McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). The modeling behavior becomes a desired outcome through positive or negative reinforcement (as cited in McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). For instance, a friend pushes his peer to steal, and this becomes a rite-of-passage to their gang. The feeling of belongingness becomes a pleasurable outcome that is reinforced through future criminal activities. In terms of child sexual abuse, learning that violence can lead to pleasure of power can produce sexually offensive behaviors for adults who were also victims of sexual abuse (McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). Social learning theories stress: “Children exposed to family violence learn not only the rationale and commission of violence, but if the violence is perceived to “solve problems,” it may be even more likely to be replicated as victims enter adolescence and adulthood” (McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.486). Psychoanalytical theories are under-tapped for this research subject. For example, rape is a disempowering act. The rapist, however, might feel powerful over his victims. By raping other children, he might feel that he regains the power he has lost when he was raped before. Hence, the environment provides antecedents to learning deviant sexual attitudes and behaviors that can result to sexual molestation of children, but further studies on its psychological dynamics must also be considered. Aside from social learning and psychological aspects, demographics can impact the prevalence of child sexual abuse. McGrath, Nilsen, and Kerley (2011) explored studies that showed that more girls than boys are sexually abused (p.487). Children under twelve and come from low-income groups experience more sexual abuse than older children and from high-income groups. The demographics indicate high-risk groups for child sexual victims and the impact of these factors on their limited resources for their treatment of sexual, physical, and psychological trauma. Child Trauma Several studies showed that the abused-to-abuser hypothesis is mostly true, especially for sexual offenders of children. Jespersen, Lalumiere, and Seto (2009) conducted a meta-analysis on sexual history abuse among offenders who were divided between sexually-offensive and non-sexually offensive. Findings showed that adult sexual offenders of children experienced more sexual abuse as children than offenders of adults: “…sex offenders against adults were significantly less likely to report a history of sexual abuse than sex offenders against children, but significantly more likely to report a history of physical abuse” (Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009, p.186). Findings also showed that five of the studies enabled them to compare two groups of sex offenders against children: those who were more probable to be pedophilic and those who were less likely to be pedophilic. The difference between pedophilic and non-pedophilic sex offenders against children relied on laboratory appraisal of sexual arousal to children, self-disclosure, or victim choices (Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009, p.186). Three studies stressed a greater occurrence of sexual abuse history among pedophilic offenders than among non-pedophilic offenders, with one of these differences being statistically important (Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009, p.186). Many pedophiles also suffered from sexual abuse as children. The relationship between sexual abuse history and sexual offending could be most applicable to sexual offending against children because these offenders had a considerably higher occurrence of sexual abuse history than sex offenders against adults, but a much lower experience of physical abuse (Jespersen, Lalumiere, & Seto, 2009, p.188). McGrath, Nilsen, and Kerley (2011) showed similar findings in their synthesis of empirical studies on child sexual abuse. They learned that the physical and psychological trauma of sexual abuse does not, all the time, increase the predisposition of children to become future adult sexual offenders of children also, although “their chances are greater than for those who are not abused as children” (McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011, p.487). Thus, CSA is not a sole significant factor for adult sexual offenses, but it can lead to the latter. Personality Some studies expressed that child trauma could exacerbate or produce traits that can contribute to deviant sexual behaviors as adults. McGrath, Nilsen, and Kerley (2011) mentioned the study of Walsh, Fortier, and DiLillo (2010), who reviewed 39 studies of adult functioning and coping among CSA victims. They realized that CSA is a “non-specific risk factor” for adult functioning issues because “10 to 25% of victims experienced no direct psychological problems in childhood, and 20 to 40% of victims had no clear symptomatology in adulthood” (Walsh, Fortier, & DiLillo, 2010, p. 2). Most of the CSA victims, however, experienced trauma that was connected to numerous harmful adult results, such as “depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress, relationship difficulties, and substance abuse” (Walsh, Fortier, & DiLillo, 2010, p. 2). Burton, Duty, and Leibowitz (2011) noted from their research that adolescent sexual offenders experienced violence at home/community and have become aggressive themselves. The sexual and physical aggression traits of adult sexual offenders may have psychological components due to child sexual trauma. Easton et al. (2011) studied if and how characteristics of childhood sexual abuse and disclosure affected the three dimensions of psychosexual functioning, emotional, behavioral and evaluative, during adulthood. They had a sampling of 165 adults who experienced sexual abuse when they were children. Findings showed that two factors negatively shaped all the dimensions of psychosexual functioning: “age at the time of abuse and telling someone at the time of the abuse” (Easton et al., 2011, p.47). Being older made children more aware of what happened to them, so they became afraid of sex and felt guilty during sex (Easton et al., 2011, p.47). Younger children lack understanding of what happened to them: “Typically, younger children do not have a functional or relational understanding of sexual organs and, therefore, have a limited understanding of the implications of sexual contact or of abuse” (Easton et al., 2011, p.47). Older children develop feelings of guilt and anxiety: “Conversely, children who are older at the time of the abuse may be more likely to understand its implications and that [these] social norms were violated” (Easton et al., 2011, p.47). Being young does not erase psychological effects, nevertheless, such as possibilities of regression that will appear as sexual problems during adulthood (Easton et al., 2011, p.47). Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework shows that children are at the center of their environment. Their experiences of sexual abuse can result to becoming sexual offenders, depending on their traits and environmental variables. The antecedents of CSA are violence and sexual behaviors at home and community, as well as poverty and other disempowering factors. This framework shows the importance of having policies and programs that will help children deal with their sexual trauma. Long-term therapy may be needed if signs of sexual and other psychological problems are apparent. References Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 66?77. Burton, D.L., Duty, K.J., & Leibowitz, G.S. (2011). Differences between sexually victimized and nonsexually victimized male adolescent sexual abusers: Developmental antecedents and behavioral comparisons. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 20 (1), 77-93. Connolly, M., & Woollons, R. (2008). Childhood sexual experience and adult offending: an exploratory comparison of three criminal groups. Child Abuse Review, 17 (2), 119-132. Cozby, P.C. (2012). Methods in behavioral research (Kindle Edition). New York: McGraw-Hills. Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. California: SAGE. Easton, S., Coohey, C., O’Leary, P., Zhang, Y., & Hua, L. (2011). The effect of childhood sexual abuse on psychosexual functioning during adulthood. Journal of Family Violence, 26 (1), 41-50. Jespersen, A.F., Lalumiere, M.L., & Seto, M.C. (2009). Sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders and non-sex offenders: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(3), 179-192. McGrath, S.A., Nilsen, A.A., & Kerley, K.R. (2011). Sexual victimization in childhood and the propensity for juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(6), 485-492. Walsh, K., Fortier, M. A., & DiLillo, D. (2010). Adult coping with childhood sexual abuse:A theoretical and empirical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 1?13. Read More