Gender Peculiarities in Public Health - Essay Example

? Gender: Foundation of Inequality in Health of the of the Introduction Physical health is one of the most important aspects of human life. Healthy body leads to healthy life. However, physical health depends not only on healthy functioning of the body but also on mind and spirit of human being. In fact, the whole environment of a person influences the health of his body and mind. As the environment of a human being consists of people and social elements around him, the social structure plays a major role in construction of different aspects of his life. Health, being one of the major aspects of life, is also affected by the social structure. The unfortunate thing is that the gender differences, which are observed in the society, are also observed in the health scenario. Hence, gender plays a significant role in the social production of health and illness. According to Harding (1986), even though health and illness can be “explained or interpreted within the assumptions of modern science,” there are many aspects of health and illness that are “hidden from the consciousness of science” (Lorber & Moore, 2002, p. 1). This is because social and historical particularities like human emotions, political values, individual and collective unconscious, social system, gender roles etc., tend to influence the health and illness in human beings (Lorber & Moore, 2002, p. 1). According to Harding (1986), the scientific and the social worlds are strongly related to each other and shape each other (Lorber & Moore, 2002, p. 1). The gender differences, which are observed in society due to patriarchal and male dominated systems, are also observed in the way men and women are treated in the field of health. Hence, immediate steps are needed to be taken to change the gender bias in social production of health and illness, as only equality in treatment of males and females will lead to development of a healthy society. Gender Inequalities Gender inequality is one of the major aspects of social system. Suppression of female voice and their rights has been in practice since ancient times. Hence, it is not surprising to find the same trend in health field also. Since the early 1970’s, the major area of sociological researches has been dedicated to studying the gender inequalities in health (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). Gender inequalities led the feminist movements to search for reason behind the differences in male and female morbidity and mortality, which were observed in society (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). Social circumstances are known to influence women’s health in many ways. Feminists have attempted to challenge the detrimental effects of patriarchal system on women’s health by probing into the relationship between variations in women’s social circumstances and their health (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). According to study by Annandale (1998), it was revealed that if women were given access to the social roles, statuses and facilities which were hitherto considered as domain of male, then their health will experience enhancement and improvement (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). Unfortunately, women are not treated equally. The vital aspect of female position in social health scenario, which was revealed through the research by feminists, was the essence behind the term ‘gender,’ and how it affected the social production of health and illness. Difference between Sex and Gender By the end of 1970’s, the liberal feminist movement had made its agenda to conduct research on gender differences in health, which were the extension of the inequalities that had seeped deep into different aspect of society like “paid and domestic work,” status and income (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). One of the most essential thing that was considered as the basis for this research was the distinction between sex (biology) and gender (the social) (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). ‘Sex’ is biology of a person while gender is a social term which is used to describe the sex role that one has to act out or “what the society says is the appropriate way to act out the role” (Budrys, 2010, p. 45). The sex differences in physiology and socially constructed gender roles are responsible for health differences between men and women (McCrea, 2003, p.189). Hence, as gender inequalities are socially produced, according to the feminists and social researchers, by making changes and modifications in the gender roles, the inequalities can be reduced, or even eradicated (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.1). However, researchers have found that it is not as easy as it seems. Difficulties in Achievement of Equality The requirement of social changes for bringing equality in gender treatment gave rise to many challenges. There were many questions and challenges which were posed in front of the feminists and social researchers. For example, the terms like greater equality or greater inequality were needed to be defined clearly if the Western society was to be understood on basis of it (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.2). The other question was to what extent the changes in gender roles in field of work, household, family, leisure, consumption etc., should be made in order to reduce or eradicate gender differences in health (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.2). Moreover, it was not possible to know what will really bring a positive change in social order, i.e. replacement of patriarchy or new form of patriarchy which did not divide the gender in two different roles (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.2). However, even though it is difficult to assess what really constitutes social change in order to bring equality, it is necessary to find solution to it as health and illness are strongly based on social order (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.2). As gender roles are production of social order and social system, it is essential to have a clear sense of what ‘gender’ really means as it highly influences the difference between health and illness in males and females living in the society. Effects of Gender Inequality The central organizing theme in medical sociology is the social construction of diagnosis and illness (Brown, 1995, p.34). Human being’s understandings of, and action towards health, illness and healing are shaped by the social forces (Brown, 1995, p.34). People’s assumptions about the “prevalence, incidence, treatment, and meaning of disease” are produced on the basis of knowledge which is shaped by gender, different social structures and norms (Brown, 1995, p.34). Studies have shown that there is a strong link between employment and health of women, and this link lies at the core of relationship between gender and health (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.3). In the patriarchal society, women’s work and job was given a secondary position and their domestic roles and responsibilities were considered as ‘natural’ (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.3). According to Crompton (1997), as it was considered that ‘workers were men,’ the researches in 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s were operated only on men as sample population, resulting in researches which were male oriented (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.3). This pattern continued in the researches in field of health also. According to Messing et al. (1993), in the field of health research, it was considered that women’s health issues can be inferred from men’s samples as men were believed to be ‘universal’ in nature (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.3). Hence, only men’s samples were used for studying medicine in earlier works (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.3). This shows that even the completely scientific filed like medicine was influenced by the cultural beliefs and order of social construction. Social Construction of Illness The tradition of building the knowledge on the basis of male-only samples continued till long time. According to Doyle (1993), the health implications of women’s work became centre of attraction in medical world only in 1970’s (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.4). After the Second World War, the significant increase in women’s labor force participation remained overlooked by the medical world due to gender bias and patriarchal influence (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.4). This scenario changed after some years, and according to study by Sorensen and Verbrugge (1987), a trend began where only women samples were studied for research purpose (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.4). However, this did not change the functioning of research methods in the field of health. According to Hunt and Annandale (1993), assumptions continued to be made regarding what aspect of work suits which gender, irrespective of the nature of the samples (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.4). Hence, the aim of collecting women’s samples was defeated as its purpose, which was to do comparative studies, was never fulfilled. This further proved that the dominant ideologies and the pervasive gender differences in labour market led to the gendered assumptions that seeped into the research on inequalities in health (Annandale & Hunt, 2000, p.4). This affected the possibility of women gaining good medical treatment and facility in case of health problems. Moreover, the gender bias also led people to perceive everything related to women as unimportant. Role of Gender in Health Studies in sociology have proved that life-cycle roles and choices are influenced by gender (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). Hence, along with major health aspects, even the less obvious phenomena such as aging and survival are influenced by ‘gender’ (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). This shows that gender influences health in many different ways. Health perceptions, policy and research questions are influenced by gender, which in turn is shaped by the individual and social culture (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). It has been found that health experiences are based on the gender roles in the society (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). Different social researchers have revealed that health promoting behaviour, illness roles, health –seeking behaviour and health risks are sex roles which are defined by culture (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). For example, the health aspects like nutrition, health promotion and hygiene of family are considered as women’s responsibility and hence, this responsibility drives them “to take better care of themselves” (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). This shows that health of woman is influenced by the gender role that is assigned to her by the culture and society in which she is brought up. In fact, women are found to be more active than men in promotion of health. For example, a Canadian study by Kandrack et al. (1991) has revealed that although there was no large differences between male and female, it was women who engaged more “frequently and in a wider range of health promoting behaviours than men” (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). However, it has also been found that health promoting behaviour can also be harmful in case of excessive hygiene (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). It is important to note here that health behaviour in women is strongly influenced by culture. In Inhorn’s (1993) study of infertile women, it was found that the frequent manual douching for genital cleanliness, which was the hygiene routine emphasized by culture, led to decrease in fertility in women (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). Study by Lane and Meleis (1991) found that in rural Egypt, women’s sick role behaviour and access to costly biomedical care were influenced by their gender and age (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). A study by McGrath et al. (1992) revealed that women in Uganda gets exposed to the risk of HIV transmission due to culturally patterned sexual behaviour and norms which dictate single partner for women, while men are allowed multiple partners (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 136). These studies clearly show how the gender plays significant role in production of health and illness. Sadly, women’s health and female specific health concerns have always been suppressed and degraded in male dominated society. Distortion of Female Health Issues One of the most important aspects that came to light while investigating the gender related differences in field of health was the distortion of the facts related to biological processes of female body. According to Sargent and Brettell (1996), the natural reproductive processes of females, like menstruation, childbirth, and menopause, was distorted by terming them as ‘medical problems’ (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 137). While defining women’s body, patriarchal medicine misrepresents it as always wanting, in contrast to the good, healthy, male body (White, 2009, p.133). In defining women’s biology and body as inferior to men, the idea that women are sicker, weaker and more at risk of biological disorder than men, is given to the society (White, 2009, p.133). This distorts the truth about strength and abilities of women. For the drug companies and physicians, the representation of female biological processes as pathologies becomes an economic boon, as its ‘treatment’ generates huge amount of money for them (Lane & Cibula, 2003, p. 137). Hence, a wrong belief that women are “essentially reproductive and ultimately inferior beings” has continued to prevail in society (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 215). These ideas have influenced women’s experiences of medical care as it has exerted powerful and harmful effect on the medical practice (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 215). It was believed that with women entering into professional world, their position and status in society will change. However, it did not happen so. Sadly, this situation has not changed even in modern world of today where women are devoting equal time and energy to their professional lives as men. Even though the traditional stereotype thinking about woman as ‘domesticated woman’ fulfilling her motherhood has decreased, the patriarchal relationship between men and women has not been abolished (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 217). Instead, a “new form of oppressive ideology has emerged which is flexible enough to accommodate the changing role of women, while at the same time maintaining their ultimate inferiority” (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 217). Considering reproductive health and childbirth as pathology led ‘gender’ become a way of social production of health and illness (Annandale, 2009, p.145). Hence, instead of solving woman’s problem of gender inequality, it has increased the pressure and misery of women. “Women are now accepted both as workers and as housewives/mothers,” but are not given the respect and status that they deserve (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 217). Patriarchal society has found a new way of oppressing and degrading women by imposing that their domestic responsibilities affect their professional performance and vice versa (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 217). Women’s domestic and therefore inferior identity, in spite of being earning member of the family and fulfilling the domestic duties sincerely, has not changed, and is continuing to oppress and exploit them (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 218). This oppression also seeps into the field of health, where the natural phenomena like menstrual cycle and birth are treated like ‘problems,’ and women have to depend on ‘experts’ in medical field for it (Doyal & Pennell, 1991, p. 218). This creates a problem for women. Moreover, because of ignorance of health issues in women, they are more likely to become either chronically ill or disabled in later life, as they tend to live longer than men (Stephens, Leach, Taggart & Jones, 1998, p. 332). Also, the environmental risks and stress processes due to gendered roles that men and women inhabit influences the health and illness in them (Murphy & Bennet, 2004, p.242). In this way, gender is significant in the social production of health and illness. Conclusion The discussion above shows that social construction of gender affects the field of health very strongly. The knowledge, definitions, perceptions, diagnosis and treatment of illness are based on the foundation of socially created gender roles that men and women have to play. Hence, gender is significant in social production of health and illness. Women are given inferior treatment and inferior status when it comes to medical treatments. Feminists have done their best to expose the distorted ideas about women’s health and remove the gender differences in field of health. However, removing gender differences in health is possible only when women are given equal rights and status in the patriarchal society. References Annandale, E. & Hunt, K. (2000). Gender inequalities in health. Buckingham, UK: Open UP. Annandale, E. (2009). Women’s health and social change. Oxon, OX: Routledge. Brown, P. (1995). Naming and framing: The social construction of diagnosis and illness. Journal of health and social behavior, 35, 34-52. Budrys, G. (2010). Unequal health: How inequality contributes to health or illness (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Doyal, L. & Pennel, I. (1991). The political economy of health (7th ed.). London, UK: Pluto Press. Lane, S. & Cibula, D. (2003). Gender and health. In G.L. Albrecht, R. Fitzpatrick & S.C. 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